GIFT  OF 


HAND-BOOK 


OF 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE 


JUNIATA  L  SHEPPERD,  M.  A. 

INSTRUCTOR    IN    COOKERY    AND    LAUNDERING, 
SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE  f>F  AGRICULTURE, 

•       UNIVERSITY  OF  M^fNESOTA. 


AUTHOR'S  /EDITION. 

PUBLISHED  81  THE  AUTHOR. 


PKINTJSD  rf  WEBB  PUBLISHING  Co. 

W.  PAUL.  MINN. 

1902 


CCPYRIOHT  1902 
BY 

JUNIAIA  L.  SHKPPEKD. 


PREFACE. 

This  text  will  be  found  useful  in  the  class  room,  and 
it  will  also  serve  as  a  manual  for  the  housewife  in  the 
farm  home.  It  treats  of  the  philosophy  of  cooking.  It 
gives  directions  for  preparing  and  serving  many  of  the 
substantial,  and  some  embellishing,  dishes.  It  treats  of 
the  kitchen  and  dining  room,  and  gives  suggestions  on 
their  furnishing  and  care. 

In  preparing  this  book,  the  author  has  consulted  many 
books  and  magazines  devoted  to  the  subject  of  house- 
hold science.  The  literature  on  the  subject  of  foods, 
which  is  issued  by  the  department  at  Washington,  is  reg- 
ularly received,  and  has  been  freely  consulted  in  revis- 
ing the  notes  and  lectures  used  in  the  school  room  each 
year.  The  book  is  largely  a  compilation  of  these  lectures 
and  notes,  supplemented  by  formulae  for  the  preparation 
and  serving  of  the  various  dishes.  The  formulae  are 
such  as  have  been  found  reliable  by  use  in  the  school 
rooms  and  culinary  departments  over  which  it  has  been 
the  author's  privilege  to  preside. 

The  formulae  marked  "class  work"  give  directions, 
usually,  for  dishes  sufficient  for  two  people,  as  these 
amounts  have  been  found  most  practical  for  the  schools 
in  which  used.  The  young  housewife  will  find  them 
about  what  she  wishes.  The  teacher  who  finds  a  smaller 
amount  better,  can  easily  divide  the  formulae  for  most 
dishes  without  changing  the  proportions  of  the  ingredi- 
ents and  thus  make  small  formulae  which  will  be  reliable. 

JUNIATA  L.  SHEPPERD. 
St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn., 
Sept.  20,  1902. 

418547 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FUELS. 

The  value  of  a  fuel  is  estimated  by  determining  the 
amount  of  moisture,  of  volatile  matter,  and  of  fixed  car- 
bon and  sulphur  it  contains.  The  principal  fuels  occur 
in  the  solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  forms.  Chief  among  the 
solid  fuels  are  coal,  wood,  charcoal,  and  coke.  The  distri- 
bution of  coal  is  general  over  the  United  States  and  Eu- 
rope. Although  the  coal  fields  of  the  United  States  are 
shallow  compared  with  those  of  Nova  Scotia  and  parts  of 
Europe,  they  are  sufficiently  extensive  to  render  them  the 
richest  in  the  world. 

Varieties  of  Coal. 

Coals  are  divided  in  the  first  place  into  hard  and  soft 
coal.  The  hard  coal  is  known  as  "anthracite"  or  "glance," 
the  soft,  as  "black"  or  "bituminous,"  coal.  Each  of  these 
groups  may  be  subdivided  into  several  varieties. 

Graphite  may  be  placed  at  the  base  of  the  series  of  coal 
formations.  This  represents  coal  deprived  of  all  its  vola- 
tile matter  and  a  very  large  portion  of  the  original  car- 
bon, but  practically  none  of  the  original  ash.  Graphite  is 
practically  incombustible,  and  is  never  used  as  a  fuel,  and 
is  not  listed  among  coals. 

Anthracite  coal  comes  next  in  the  series  as  regards 
hardness  and  amount  of  carbon.  It  contains  from  three 
to  ten  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter,  and  sometimes  as  high, 
as  ninety-five  per  cent,  of  carbon.  This  variety  of  min- 


eral  coal  contains  a  small  amount  of  hydrogen,  and  conse- 
quently burns  almost  without  flame.  Anthracite  coal  is  a 
clean  and  convenient  fuel  for  household  use.  Its  avail- 
able heating  power  is  high.  It  has  great  durability  in 
combustion,  and  it  is  possible  to  gain  practically  complete 
combustion  by  sifting  the  ashes  and  reusing  the  partially 
burned  coal.  It  is  a  better  winter  than  summer  fuel  for 
kitchen  use,  because  it  is  so  much  more  difficult  to  kindle 
a  fire  with  coal  than  with  wood,  and  it  is  easier  to  have  a 
good  fire  and  then  extinguish  it  when  using  wood.  The 
greatest  objection  to  this  coal  as  a  household  fuel  is  its 
expense.  It  makes  a  hot,  steady  fire,  and  is  pleasant  to 
handle. 

Semi-bituminous  coal  comes  next  in  the  line  of  hard- 
ness. It  contains  from  ten  to  eighteen  per  cent,  of  gas- 
eous matter.  It  kindles  more  readily  than  anthracite  coal, 
has  a  high  heating  power,  and  cakes  in  the  fire.  As  a 
coal  for  household  purposes,  it  ranks  next  to  anthracite 
coal.  It  burns  more  freely  in  an  open  grate  than  anthra- 
cite coal,  but  it  is  less  cleanly. 

The  bituminous  or  soft  coals  are  divided  into  coking, 
furnace,  and  cannel  coals.  In  bituminous  coal,  the  amount 
of  volatile  matter  varies  from  eighteen  to  fifty  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  mass. 

The  coking  coals  melt  and  adhere  in  burning,  and  when 
the  gaseous  matter  has  escaped,  a  mass  of  coke  remains. 
Most  bituminous  coals  belong  to  this  variety,  of  which 
the  Pittsburg  coal  may  be  taken  as  a  type.  Bituminous 
coals  are  extensively  employed  for  the  generation  of 
steam,  and,  when  coked,  for  smelting  metals.  Their  tend- 
ency to  adhere  in  masses  when  burning  prevents  their 
being  used  for  this  in  their  raw  state.  This  variety  of 
coal  is  a  good  heat  producer,  but  on  account  of  the  large 
amount  of  volatile  matter  contained,  it  produces  a  great 
quantity  of  smoke  and  soot.  In  some  localities  it  is  ex- 
pedient to  use  it  because  it  is  the  cheapest  fuel.  Extreme 


FUELS.  5 

care  is  necessary,  when  it  is  burned  in  the  kitchen  range, 
to  prevent  the  light,  black,  tenacious  particles  of  soot  es- 
caping into  the  room.  It  is  also  very  unpleasant  to  han- 
dle. 

Coking  coals  sometimes  contain  much  sulphur,  and 
when  so  contaminated  they  are  not  prized  as  gas  coal,  but 
when  sufficiently  free  from  this  they  are  much  used  in 
the  production  of  illuminating  gas.  The  cannel  coals  ex- 
ceed these  in  the  volume  and  illuminating  power  of  their 
gas,  but  the  coking  coals  furnish  the  most  valuable  coke. 

The  furnace  coals  are  those  bituminous  coals  which  do 
not  melt  or  adhere  in  the  fire. 

Cannel  coals  form  a  third  variety  of  coals,  and  differ 
from  other  bituminous  coals  in  the  following  particulars : 
They  are  more  homogeneous  in  texture,  contain  less 
pitch,  and  are  less  brilliant ;  they  have  a  low  heating  pow- 
er, but  are  esteemed  in  some  localities  as  a  household 
fuel. 

Coke. 

Coke  is  manufactured  from  coal,  and  may  be  produced 
in  two  ways :  It  may  be  a  by-product  of  the  distillation 
of  coal  for  the  production  of  tar,  ammonia,  etc.,  or  it 
may  be  obtained  by  heating  the  coal  in  a  coke  oven  with 
an  almost  entire  exclusion  of  air.  It  has  a  dull  appear- 
ance, and  gives  a  metallic  ring  when  struck.  That 
made  in  the  oven  or  kiln  of  brick  or  stone  is  the 
best  quality  of  coke,  and  is  used  for  melting  pig 
iron,  and  for  smelting  copper  and  lead.  Coke  was 
formerly  made  by  a  method  similar  to  that  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  vegetable  charcoal.  Much  of  the 
coke  found  in  fuel  markets  is  that  produced  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  gas.  This  is  not  equal  to 
the  best  oven  coke,  but  is  a  reasonably  good  heat  pro- 
ducer, and  is  much  more  cleanly  than  bituminous  coal. 
No  special  stove  or  furnace  is  needed  for  burning  it.  It 
burns  out  grates  and  fixtures  more  than  other  fuels.  Coke, 


6  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

like  charcoal,  needs  to  be  stored  in  a  dry  place,  as  its 
porous  nature  causes  it  to  absorb  much  moisture,  and  this 
interferes  very  materially  with  its  value  as  a  fuel. 

Charcoal. 

Charcoal  bears  the  same  relation  to  wood  as  coke  does 
to  coal.  The  manufacture  of  coke  and  charcoal  are  both 
processes  of  destructive  distillation.  Usually  means  are 
employed  to  save  the  useful  materials  which  are  driven 
off  by  the  heat. 

Charcoal  makes  an  excellent  fire  for  broiling  meats,  as 
it,  like  the  coke,  burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  without  smoke, 
deposits  no  soot,  and  yields  an  intense  heat.  Charcoal 
-can  be  very  economically  used  for  a  broiling  fire  in  the 
range  when  there  is  no  fire  needed  for  other  things.  When 
through  using  the  coal,  extinguish  it  with  water,  and 
when  thoroughly  dried  it  will  burn  equally  well. 

Wood. 

Wood  is  more  universally  used  as  a  fuel  than  coal,  oil, 
and  gas.  In  many  cases  it  is  cheaper  than  hard  coal, 
and  cleaner  than  soft  coal.  Gas  is  a  pleasant  fuel  for 
cooking  purposes,  but  is  not  generally  available,  and  is 
expensive  in  some  localities.  Wood,  to  be  most  valu- 
able as  a  fuel,  must  be  dense  and  dry.  Green  wood  con- 
tains much  moisture,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  have  so  hot 
a  fire  quickly  with  it.  As  this  is  often  needed  in  the 
kitchen,  it  is  better  to  avoid  green  wood,  because  some 
heat  must  be  used  up  in  vaporizing  the  water  in  the  wood. 
The  amount  of  water  varies,  but  forms  from  one-fifth 
to  one-half  the  weight  of  the  wood.  The  essential  ele- 
ments of  wood  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  There 
is  mineral  matter  present,  also,  as  is  shown  by  the  ash 
after  the  wood  is  burned. 

Wood  for  fuel  purposes  may  be  divided  into  hard  and 
soft  woods.  The  same  rule  holds  good  in  wood  as  in 
coal  in  this  respect, — the  hard  fuel  is  the  best.  Hard 


FUELS.  7 

wood,  such  as  oak  or  hickory,  gives  a  nice  bed  of  glowing' 
coals,  which  continue  to  yield  heat  long  after  the  blaze  is 
gone. 

When  a  steady  fire  is  required  for  baking,  a  few  sticks 
of  hard  wood  of  good  size  will  make  it  possible  to  control 
the  heat  during  a  long  period  of  time.  Soft  wood  burns 
to  ashes  very  quickly,  gives  a  good  heat,  but  needs  con- 
stant watching  and  replenishing. 

In  order  to  have  wood  serve  its  purpose  best  in  the 
kitchen  range,  it  must  be  cut  long  enough  before  using 
to  give  it  time  to  become  thoroughly  dried  out  or  sea- 
soned. Trees  for  fuel  should  not  be  cut  when  they  are 
what  the  woodmen  call  "in  sap" ;  that  is,  when  they  are 
in  leaf,  or  after  the  buds  begin  to  swell  in  the  spring. 
Such  wood  is  more  apt  to  be  infested  by  insects,  and  de- 
cay sets  in  sooner. 

Wood  when  ready  for  the  stove  should  be  short  enough 
to  be  admitted  readily,  but  not  so  short  as  to  pack  the  fire. 
When  seasoned  and  cut,  it  should  be  packed  in  a  dry 
place.  Moisture  from  rain  dries  out  more  quickly  than 
the  natural  moisture  from  the  tree,  but  decreases  the 
value  of  the  fuel,  and  annoys  the  housekeeper  as  well. 
The  wood  itself  burns  better  than  the  bark,  and  produces 
less  ashes. 

In  buying  wood,  avoid  that  which  has  many  crooked 
or  knotty  sticks.  It  will  not  lie  close,  and  what  is  gained 
in  the  resinous  knots  of  the  soft  wood  will  hardly  com- 
pensate for  what  is  lost  in  measure.  The  absence  of  bark, 
or  the  shelling  off  of  the  bark,  is  an  indication  that  the 
wood  has  passed  its  best  stage,  and  begun  to  deteriorate 
slightly.  Soft  wood  is  better  than  hard  wood  for  kindling, 
because  more  easily  manipulated,  and  it  also  burns  more 
readily. 

Peat. 

Peat  is  of  vegetable  origin.  It  is  found  in  marshy 
places,  and  is  always  wet,  even  if  not  saturated  with  wa- 


8  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

ter.  The  roots  and  vegetable  fibres  are  in  different  stages 
of  decay,  and  the  bottom  layers  are  black,  unctuous, 
and  much  more  dense  than  the  fresher  growth.  It  is 
taken  out  in  blocks,  dried,  and  used  for  fuel.  Air-dried 
peat  averages  about  fifteen  per  cent,  water.  Peat  makes 
much  ash,  the  amount  varying  from  four  or  five  to 
twenty-five  per  cent. 

Liquid  Fuels. 

The  most  common  liquid  fuels  are  kerosene,  gasoline, 


Inner  Construction  of  Range. 

and  the  two  kinds  of  alcohol, — the  ethyl,  or  common  al- 
cohol, and  the  methyl,  or  wood  alcohol. 

To  use  kerosene  satisfactorily  as  a  summer  fuel,  two 
things  are  necessary:  The  oil  must  be  of  good  grade, — 
that  is,  have  a  high  flashing  point, — and  the  stove  must 


t 


t 


Diagram  of  a  section  of  range,  showing  direction  of  hot-air  currents 
when  damper  is  open,  as  in  No.  1;  when  closed,  as  in  No.  2. 


10  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

be  kept  perfectly  clean.  The  lighter  oils  mix  readily  with 
kerosene,  and  unless  it  is  sufficiently  purified  to  be  com- 
paratively free  from  these  inflammable  oils,  there  is  dan- 
ger of  accidents  in  its  use,  just  as  there  is  danger  in 
using  oil  of  poor  quality  in  a  lamp.  The  flashing  point 
is  fixed  by  law,  and  is  usually  not  lower  than  150°,  nor 
higher  than  200°  F.  With  good  oil,  one  can  use  a 
kerosene  stove  very  comfortably  if  it  is  cared  for  just  as  is 
a  lamp ;  otherwise  it  will  smoke  and  make  the  user  very 
unhappy. 

Gasoline  gives  less  trouble  than  kerosene,  because  the 
stove  requires  much  less  cleaning;  but  on  account  of  the 
volatile  nature  of  the  gasoline,  its  use  is  always  attended 
with  some  danger. 

Both  gasoline  and  kerosene  are  obtained  by  a  process 
of  refining  the  mineral  oils.  Most  mineral  oils  are  ob- 
tained by  boring  into  the  earth,  the  same  as  for  artesian 
wells.  In  the  process  of  refining  the  crude  oil,  the  white, 
solid  paraffine  wax  is  obtained,  and  the  semi-solid  vase- 
line, as  well  as  many  products  of  a  liquid  nature,  used  for 
various  purposes. 

The  alcohols  are  about  equal  in  fuel  value.  They  are 
both,  when  pure,  colorless,  volatile  liquids.  They  ignite 
by  the  touch  of  a  flame;  give  little  light,  much  heat,  and 
no  smoke.  Methyl  alcohol  gives  off  a  disagreeable  odor. 
In  using  either  variety,  the  bottle  should  be  corked  and 
set  away  before  a  match  is  lighted,  if  one  would  be  sure 
to  have  no  accidents.  Much  of  the  ethyl  alcohol  is  ob- 
tained from  the  distillation  of  grains.  Fermentation  is 
the  only  process  of  production.  Methyl  alcohol  is  ob- 
tained by  the  process  known  as  the  "destructive  distilla- 
tion of  wood."  Much  of  it  is  one  of  the  by-products  of 
the  charcoal  kiln. 

TO  MAKE  AND  MANAGE  A  FIRE. 

Every  woman  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  cook- 
ing should  study  the  kitchen  range  until  she  is  familiar 


FUELS.  11 

with  every  part  of  it,  both  inside  and  out.  She  must  un- 
derstand the  use  and  abuse  of  every  damper,  door,  and 
slide. 

Every  range  has  a  fire  box.  This  may  be  round  or 
elongated;  deep  or  shallow.  When  wood  is  to  be  used, 
a  moderately  deep  and  long  fire  box  is  preferable,  as  it 
will  admit  longer  and  larger  sticks  of  wood,  thus  en- 
abling one  to  more  easily  keep  a  steady  fire.  The  usual 
openings  in  a  fire  box  are  a  door  and  one  or  more  slides. 
The  latter  admit  air  containing  the  oxygen  needed  by  the 
fire.  In  many  ranges  there  is  also  an  ash  damper  under 
the  fire  box,  which,  if  kept  open  while  raking  the  fire,  will 
aid  in  preventing  the  ashes  entering  the  room,  by  creat- 
ing an  upward  draft.  It  should  not  be  open  at  other 
times,  because  it  retards  the  burning  of  the  fire.  There 
is  also  an  oven  damper,  either  back  of  the  oven  or  over 
it,  which,  when  closed,  forces  the  flames  and  hot  smoke 
to  pass  around  the  oven ;  then,  by  means  of  divisions,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  they  are  conveyed  along  the 
bottom  of  the  oven  to  a  pipe  at  the  back  part,  through 
which  they  escape  into  the  flue.  The  oven  damper  often 
has  over  it  the  words,  "Out  to  use  the  oven,"  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  it  shall  be  out  only  when  the  oven  is  to 
be  used.  When  a  fresh  fire  is  made,  allow  the  smoke  and 
heat  to  pass  up  the  chimney,  but  as  soon  as  the  fire  is 
burning  well,  adjust  this  damper  so  that  tne  oven  will  be 
heated.  This  will  keep  the  oven  so  that  you  can  heat  it 
at  any  time  in  a  few  minutes,  and  you  will  have  a  good 
fire  with  much  less  fuel  than  by  allowing  a  strong  draft, 
created  by  open  dampers,  to  carry  the  heat  up  the  chim- 
ney. Some  ranges  have  a  damper  in  the  pipe,  also,  which 
can  be  used  when  the  draft  is  too  strong. 

To  Make  and  Manage  a  Wood  Fire. 

Take  off  all  the  stove  covers  and  brush  off  the  dust  and 
ashes  from  the  top  of  the  oven  into  the  fire  box.  Scrape 
the  ashes  from  the  fire  box  into  the  ash  pan,  and  remove 


12  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and  empty  it.  About  once  a  week  the  ashes  should  be 
scraped  from  beneath  the  oven  with  a  scraper  made  for 
the  purpose. 

When  ready  to  lay  the  fire,  place  on  the  bottom  of  the 
fire  box  some  shavings,  if  you  have  them ;  otherwise  pre- 
pare some  paper  by  wringing  it  in  the  hands,  and  lay  that 
in.  On  the  paper  lay  a  number  of  fine  sticks  extending 
the  entire  length  of  the  grate,  and  crossing  each  other 
diagonally,  to  allow  the  air  to  circulate  among  them,  and 
let  the  ends  of  the  sticks  rest  on  the  supports  at  the  ends 
of  the  fire  box,  that  they  may  not  press  the  paper  or  shav- 
ings too  much.  On  these  fine  sticks  place  some  thicker 
sticks,  and  criss-cross  them  as  before.  Put  the  covers  on, 
and  light  the  fire  from  below.  As  soon  as  the  fire  has 
burned  a  few  minutes,  and  sunk  a  little,  put  on  another 
stick  or  two,  and  when  it  is  well  started  close  the  drafts 
and  the  oven  damper  to  hold  a  steady  fire,  and  replenish 
as  often  as  necessary. 

To  Make  and  Manage  a  Coal  Fire. 

Prepare  the  range  the  same  as  for  a  wood  fire.  Put  into 
the  fire  box  several  pieces  of  thick  kindling  wood,  laying 
them  across  the  bars  of  the  grate  a  short  distance  apart. 
On  these  place  the  shavings  or  paper  as  before,  letting 
them  protrude  through  the  bars  of  the  grate,  so  that  they 
can  be  lighted  from  below.  On  these  place  the  small  and 
the  large  sticks,  as  before,  until  the  fire  box  is  nearly  filled, 
then  sprinkle  on  a  shovelful  of  coal,  and  light.  Add  a 
little  coal,  as  needed,  until  a  nice  bed  of  red  coals  is 
formed,  then  fill  the  fire  box  with  coal  nearly  to  the  top 
of  the  fire  bricks.  Under  no  circumstances  fill  it  fuller 
than  this,  because  there  is  nothing  gained  by  having  the 
top  of  the  range  red  hot,  and  it  chokes  the  draft,  wastes 
the  fuel,  and  warps  the  top  of  the  stove.  Leave  the  drafts 
open  until  the  surface  of  the  fire  is  covered  with  blue 
flames,  then  close  the  drafts  to  hold  a  steady  fire.  Do 
not  allow  the  coal  to  burn  until  it  is  red,  as  the  fire  has 


FUELS.  13 

then  reached  its  climax,  and  will  soon  begin  to  die  out 
unless  more  coal  is  added ;  neither  is  it  wise  to  allow  it  to 
burn  low.  If  you  wish  to  keep  a  brisk  fire  all  day,  add  a 
sprinkle  of  coal  now  and  then,  as  needed,  and  you  will 
not  have  to  wait  for  a  fire  to  burn. 

When  you  wish  to  hold  the  fire  from  one  meal  until 
the  next,  after  the  blue  flame  appears,  partially  remove 
one  or  more  of  the  covers,  and  close  the  drafts.  If 
the  gas  escapes,  adjust  them  so  as  to  prevent  this,  open- 
ing them  a  little  later,  if  necessary.  When  ready  to  use 
the  fire,  put  on  the  covers,  and  open  the  drafts  until  it 
again  burns  brightly.  If  the  fire  has  rested  thus  at  night, 
get  the  breakfast  and  then  put  on  a  shovelful  of  coal  and 
let  the  fire  burn  until  after  breakfast;  then  empty  the 
ashes  into  the  sifter,  replace  the  ash  pan,  open  the  ash 
damper,  and  rake  the  fire  until  free  from  ashes.  Always 


Double  Boiler.— Showing  height  of  water. 

rake  it  from  below,  using  a  long  straight  poker  which 
will  pass  between  the  bars  of  the  grate  in  front,  thus  lift- 
ing the  bed  of  coals  and  allowing  the  ashes  to  drop 
through  into  the  ash  pan.  This  also  brings  the  clinkers 
up  where  they  can  be  removed.  Close  the  ash  damper, 
sprinkle  a  little  coal  over  the  top,  put  on  the  covers,  and 
open  the  oven  damper,  When  this  burns,  put  on  coal 
nearly  to  the  top  of  the  fire  bricks,  and  when  the  blue 
flame  appears  close  the  damper. 

References:  Johnson's  Encyclopedia,  p.  356;  School  Kitch- 
en Text  Book — Lincoln — pp.  2  to  10;  Elements  of  Cookery — 
Williams  &  Fisher— 7-23. 


14 


Plan  for  Large  Farm  Kitchen. 

A— China  closet  between  dining  room  and  kitchen. 
B— Closet  for  kitchen  utensils,  tinware,  etc. 
C— Movable  table. 
D— Draining  boards. 
E— Sink;  if  there  is  water  in  house. 
F— Range. 


\ 


-.FRONT  VIEW/. 


.'.PROFILE/. 


China  Closet 


CHAPTER  II, 


THE  KITCHEN. 

The  kitchen  should  be  light  and  airy.  People,  like 
plants,  need  a  certain  amount  of  heat  and  light. 

The  kitchen  windows  should  move  easily  at  top  and 
bottom.  Windows  which  can  be  opened  easily  permit  one 
the  more  readily  to  clear  the  room  of  an  undue  amount  of 
heat  or  steam.  The  ceiling  should  be  high,  smooth,  and 
free  as  possible  from  angles.  The  height  will  give  better 
air,  and  the  smoothness  will  lessen  the  amount  of  collect- 
ing dust  and  the  trouble  with  house  pests. 


Hotel  Range. 

It  is  well  to  have  a  ventilator  in  the  roof  by  means  of 
a  skylight,  when  the  kitchen  is  so  situated  that  it  can 
be  done,  as  the  odors  will  then  escape  more  readily. 
There  should  be  floor  space  sufficient  for  range,  sink,  cup- 
board, tables,  etc.,  but  no  more  than  is  necessary ;  other- 
wise, much  extra  walking  is  required  in  doing  the  work. 


THE   KITCHEN.  17 

A  bare  floor  of  hardwood  is  best,  but  it  is  expensive, 
\and  any  bare  floor  requires  much  cleaning,  though  it  is 
certainly  more  sanitary  than  one  that  is  covered.  Soft 
wood  will  splinter  in  time,  and  tiling  is  cold  and  hard  on 
the  feet,  but  is  easily  kept  clean,  and  is  very  durable. 

If  a  covering  is  used,  linoleum  is  better  than  oilcloth, 
because  it  is  warmer  for  the  feet,  and  wears  well.  If  there 
is  water  in  the  house,  so  that  a  sink  can  be  used,  have  an 
iron  or  a  porcelain  one,  and  a  strainer  screwed  down,  to 
prevent  clogging  the  pipe. 

At  a  convenient  place  in  the  kitchen  have  a  closet  for 
kitchen  tableware  and  other  utensils.  There  should  be 
two  drawers  for  kitchen  towels,  etc.  A  small  table  on 
casters  will  be  found  very  convenient  for  use  when  one 
is  baking  pies,  etc.,  as  it  can  be  readily  wheeled  from 
pantry  to  range.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  a  table  near 
at  hand  when  one  is  frying  doughnuts,  poaching  eggs, 
or  in  fact  doing  any  cooking  on  the  top  of  the  range. 
This  table  should  be  made  of  hardwood,  that  it  may  be 
easily  cleaned,  and  should  be  covered  with  paper  while  in 
use. 

The  range  is  a  very  important  part  of  the  kitchen  fur- 
nishings and  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  set  in  a  place  where 
the  light  from  at  least  one  window  can  shine  full  upon  it, 
for  there  are  cloudy  days  when  it  is  impossible  to  cook 
successfully  unless  one  can  admit  much  light  by  adjust- 
ing window  shades. 

There  are  many  patterns  of  stoves  and  ranges,  each 
having  its  merits  and  demerits.  The  portable  and  set 
ranges  will  answer  for  a  rough  classification.  Set  ranges 
require  less  room,  but  are  often  necessarily  in  a  dark  place 
and  can  be  approached  from  one  side  only.  They  con- 
sume much  fuel  and  heat  up  slowly.  The  floor  near  them 
becomes  hot  and  uncomfortable  to  the  feet.  A  portable 
range  can  be  placed  so  as  to  have  better  light  than  a  set 
range,  in  some  cases,  and  as  it  can  be  approached  from 


18 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


more  sides,  less  lifting  of  heavy  vessels  is  necessary.  It 
requires  less  fuel  than  a  set  range,  heats  up  more  quickly, 
but  gives  a  smaller  amount  of  hot  water,  and  has  some 
other  disadvantages.  There  are  a  few  things  that  are  nee- 


Kitchen  Range. 


essary  to  the  successful  use  of  any  stove  or  range :  There 
must  be  a  free  draught,  that  the  fire  may  burn  readily; 
there  should  be  several  checks  and  dampers,  that  the  user 


THE   KITCHEN.  19 

may  be  able  to  control  the  heat  so  as  to  consume  no  more 
fuel  than  is  necessary,  and  also  be  able  to  direct  the  hot  air 
into  such  parts  of  the  range  as  are  needed  for  use  at  the 
time.  When  the  range  is  brought  into  the  house,  the 
user  must  at  once  make  herself  acquainted  with  its  dif- 
ferent dampers  and  checks,  and  study  its  inner  construc- 
tion, that  she  may  know  the  use  of  all  hot-air  and  smoke 
flues,  and  how  to  manage  them.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
obvious.  The  air  and  smoke  always  carry  with  them 
soot  and  ashes,  which  they  deposit  on  the  way  to  the  top 
of  the  chimney.  The  soot  and  ashes  must  be  removed 
frequently,  else  the  range  will  cease  to  do  good  work. 
Water  should  never  be  allowed  to  fall  on  the  range.  If 
the  range  is  hot,  it  is  liable  to  break ;  if  cold,  there  is  dan- 
ger of  rust.  When  it  is  necessary  to  leave  the  kitchen  for 
a  few  minutes,  remove  the  cover  from  the  teakettle  to  pre- 
vent it  boiling  over.  When  anything  is  spilled  on  the 
range,  wipe  it  off  at  once.  The  top  of  the  range  can  be 
kept  in  good  condition  by  washing  with  dish  water  after 
rubbing  with  a  piece  of  paper.  Whether  the  range  shall 
be  blacked,  each  user  must  decide  for  herself.  Polish 
gives  it  a  more  pleasing  appearance,  but  is  hard  on  the 
clothes  of  the  one  working  about  the  stove. 

KITCHEN  UTENSILS. 

In  selecting  kitchen  utensils,  one  should  exercise  great 
care  to  choose  only  those  which  are  best  adapted  to  her 
wants, — those  which  a  good  housekeeper  really  needs. 
Closets  filled  with  utensils  which  are  of  no  great  value  are 
not  'an  aid  to  order,  neatness,  nor  expedition  in  cooking. 

Old  iron  utensils  are  superior  to  new  ones,  because 
long  use  has  made  them  very  smooth.  In  buying  iron 
utensils,  be  careful  to  know  that  they  are  of  the  best  qual- 
ity and  well  finished.  Iron  utensils  of  poor  quality  cause 
much  annoyance.  Before  being  used,  they  should  be 
washed  and  wiped  perfectly  dry;  then  the  inside  should 
be  rubbed  with  some  kind  of  unsalted  fat,  as  lard.  Let 


20 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


the  utensils  stand  several  hours,  and  then  wash  again, 
put  over  the  fire  where  they  will  heat  gradually,  wash 
again  with  soapy  water,  rinse  thoroughly  in  hot  water, 
and  wipe  perfectly  dry. 

Many  kitchen  utensils  can  be  had  in  ironware  lined 
with  porcelain.  These  have  many  merits, — they  are  not 
acted  upon  by  acids,  they  are  thick,  and  consequently  the 
degree  of  heat  required  for  their  contents  is  easily  con- 
trolled, and,  if  carefully  handled,  they  are  durable.  If  al- 
lowed to  become  dry,  the  enamel  is  liable  to  crackle  and 
subsequently  chip  off,  and  they  are  heavy  to  handle,  but 
are  easily  cleaned. 


Gasoline  Range. 


There  are  tin  vessels  with  asbestos  interlinings.  These 
are  good  for  heating  milk  and  all  things  which  require 
care  to  prevent  burning,  and  which  do  not  act  on  tin. 

Granite  ware  is  not  acted  upon  by  acids,  is  easily  kept 
clean,  and  is  light  to  handle,  but,  like  porcelain,  will  chip 


THE   KITCHEN.  21 

off  if  burned  or  allowed  to  fall.  In  buying  iron  utensils, 
porcelain-lined  or  granite  ware,  see  that  they  are  smooth 
and  free  from  blemish,  as  any  defect  will  soon  prove  the 
ruin  of  the  whole  in  granite  and  porcelain-lined  vessels, 
and  is  a  constant  source  of  annoyance  in  iron  ones. 

Copper  vessels  retain  heat  well,  but  are  expensive  and 
difficult  to  keep  in  order.  They  may  be  kept  bright  by 
rubbing1  with  a  solution  of  salt  and  vinegar,  and  washing 
in  soapsuds  and  wiping  dry.  They  should  never  be  used 
unless  perfectly  bright,  because  the  food  is  liable  to  be 
poisoned  by  the  dark  coating. 

Aluminum  cooking  vessels  are  light  and  durable,  but 
are  very  expensive,  and,  with  some  kinds  of  water,  tarnish 
readilv  and  are  difficult  to  clean. 


Strainers,   Puree   Sieve  and  Potato  Ricer. 

In  buying  tin  vessels,  select  those  which  are  smooth 
and  heavy,  and  not  too  brilliant.  The  retinned  is  more 
expensive,  but  usually  more  satisfactory,  as  the  cheap 
ware  has  very  little  durability.  The  surface  of  cjieap  tin 
is  easily  injured  by  heat.  Tinware  is  best  washed  in  soap- 


22  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

suds,  rinsed,  and  wiped  dry.  Some  object  to  the  use  of 
soap  in  dish  washing,  fearing  that  the  soap  may  not  be 
clean.  It  is  better  to  use  home-made  soap  for  dish  wash- 
ing, and,  knowing  that  it  is  clean,  use  it  freely.  Granite 
ware  and  porcelain-lined  vessels  should  be  washed  in 
soapsuds,  if  greasy,  and  then  rinsed  in  clear  water,  if  de- 
sired, and  wiped  dry.  A  wire  dishcloth  should  be  used 
with  pots  and  kettles  when  necessary. 

A  soup  digester,  while  not  an  absolute  necessity,  is  a 
good  thing  to  have  if  one  can  afford  it.  It  must  be  suf- 
ficiently tight  to  prevent  the  steam  escaping,  else  it  is  no 
better  than  an  ordinary  kettle. 


Kitchen   Knives,    Etc. 

A  soapstone  griddle  is  expensive,  and  some  think  cakes 
baked  on  it  are  less  tender  than  those  baked  on  an  iron 
griddle.  The  soapstone  griddle  needs  no  greasing,  con- 
sequently there  is  less  smoke  from  it  than  from  the  others 
when  cakes  are  cooking.  Of  iron  griddles  there  are  sev- 
eral kinds.  The  common  cast-iron  griddle  has  very  little 
polish,  and  is  inexpensive,  but  not  very  satisfactory. 


THE   KITCHEN.  ,  A  23 

There  is  a  thick,  heavy  griddle  having  a  surface  like 
polished  steel.  This  is  good,  but  expensive.  There  is  a 
griddle  of  iron  which  is  smooth  and  durable,  also  inex- 
pensive. This  is  called  "never  break"  ware. 

If  the  grease  burns  on  the  griddle,  scour  and  rub  with 
salt  to  remove  it,  then  wash  clean,  and  wipe  dry. 

Cast-iron  roll  and  gem  pans  are  very  heavy,  and  it 
takes  some  use  to  make  them  smooth.  They  give  a  good 
crust  to  things  baked  in  them,  but  are  inconvenient  on 
account  of  their  weight.  Russia  iron  gem  pans  are  light, 


Lemon  Squeezers. 

easily  cleaned,  and  bake  well,  but  these  are  not  always 
made  so  that  thin  batters  will  not  exude  from  them.  Tin 
pans,  especially  when  new,  do  not  usually  give  so  nice  a 
crust  as  either  of  the  others.  When  used  a  while,  tin 
bakes  better,  but  it  is  never  quite  so  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose  as  some  other  materials.  Granite  ware  is  good  if 
used  with  care,  but  does  not  give  a  good  crust  very  read- 
ily. 

A  common  cast-iron  spider  with  a  short  handle  is  very 
useful  in  the  kitchen.     This  should  have  a  close-fitting 


24  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cover.  It  will  be  found  best  for  sauteing  meats,  and  can 
be  set  in  the  oven  when  necessary.  The  spider  should 
be  oared  for  in  the  same  way  as  other  iron  utensils. 

THE  PANTRY. 

Adjoining  the  kitchen  there  should  be  a  pantry.  Ten 
by  twelve  feet,  inside  measure,  is  a  good  size.  The  win- 
dow should  have  a  wire  screen,  so  that  the  room  can  be 
well  aired,  and  there  should  be  a  shade  of  some  kind  to 
shut  out  the  sun  when  necessary.  A  large,  strong  table 
containing  two  drawers  should  be  placed  near  the  win- 
dow. There  should  be  hooks  at  the  end  of  the  table,  from 
which  to  suspend  the  pastry  board,  egg  beater,  etc.  The 
board  on  which  cold  meats  are  cut,  also  that  for  bread 
and  cake,  may  be  hung  in  some  convenient  place. "  In  one 
drawer  the  rolling  pin,  knives,  pastry  and  cake  cutters, 
and  a  few  other  utensils  may  be  stored.  In  the  other, 
measuring  cups,  steel  knives,  forks,. etc.,  may  be  kept. 

On  one  side  of  the  room  there  should  be  shelves  for 
jars,  or  boxes,  in  which  materials  frequently  used,  such  as 
coffee,  tea,  rice,  etc.,  may  be  kept.  For  the  daily  or  week- 
ly supplies  in  the  pantry  there  is  nothing  better  than  glass 
jars.  They  may  be  securely  closed  from  insects,  prevent 
loss  of  strength  by  evaporation,  and  permit  one  to  see  at 
a  glance  when  the  stores  need  replenishing.  Some  shelves 
should  be  placed  up  higher  than  can  be  reached  from  the 
floor,  as  during  the  summer  these  will  be  found  a  con- 
venient place  for  empty  fruit  jars  and  such  things  as  are 
not  in  use  at  the  time.  Near  the  door  have  a  roller  for 
the  towel,  to  save  steps  while  working  in  the  pantry. 
Near  the  window,  but  not  in  the  sunshine,  have  the  re- 
frigerator, unless  there  is  a  cold  room  near  the  kitchen  in 
which  perishable  articles  of  food  may  be  kept.  If  the 
house  has  a  good  cellar,  a  refrigerator  is  not  a  necessity, 
but  is  convenient,  as  it  saves  many  steps,  and  preserves 
foods  better  than  a  cellar. 


THE   KITCHEN.  25 

THE  STOREROOM. 

A  storeroom  is  expected  to  be  a  source  of  comfort,  se- 
curity, and  economy;  but  if  it  proves  to  be  so,  it  must  be 
properly  managed,  as  well  as  wisely  arranged.  This  room 
should  be  kept  dry,  cool,  and  dark.  Light  should  be  fur- 
nished by  a  window  which  can  be  shaded  when  neces- 
sary, and  opened,  when  needed,  to  admit  light  and  air. 
This  room  should  have  many  shelves,  and  a  step-ladder 
of  convenient  size  for  use  here.  The  shelves  should  be 
made  so  they  can  be  thoroughly  and  easily  cleaned.  Any- 
thing spilled  on  these  shelves  should  be  wiped  up  at  once, 
and  the  entire  room  should  be  cleaned  often  enough  to 
prevent  dust  accumulating. 

Pantry  and  storeroom  shelves  may  be  covered  with  oil- 
cloth or  paper,  which  should  be  renewed  often  for  cleanli- 
ness. Oilcloth  is  more  satisfactory  than  paper,,  because  a 
soiled  place  caused  by  an  accident  when  the  covering  is 
clean  can  be  cleaned  without  removing  everything  from 
the  shelf.  Paper  has  the  merit  of  cheapness.  In  this 
room  should  be  kept  all  provisions  bought  in  quantities, 
except  those  having  a  strong  odor,  as  codfish,  bacon,  etc. 
These  should  be  kept  alone  in  an  airy  place. 

The  room  where,  milk  and  butter  are  kept  must  be  dry, 
well-ventilated,  and  light.  Usually  the  cellar  will  be 
found  most  desirable  for  this  purpose,  because  there  the 
temperature  is  more  even  than  in  a  place  above  ground. 
Perfect  cleanliness  and  frequent  airing  are  indispensable 
in  this  place.  If  vegetables  and  milk  are  both  kept  in  the 
same  cellar,  they  should  be  put  into  separate  rooms  which 
do  not  communicate  with  each  other,  for  milk  and  butter 
will  readily  absorb  any  odor  which  is  in  the  air  about  them. 

The  cellar  should  be  ventilated  when  the  outside  air  is 
cool,  for  warm  air  which  is  admitted  is  liable  to  contain 
moisture,  which,  on  meeting  the  cool  air  of  the  cellar, 
will  be  condensed,  and  render  the  cellar  damp,  as  well  as 


26  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

warm.  In  order  to  avoid  this,  the  windows  should  be 
opened  late  at  night,  and  closed  before  sunrise,  when  the 
air  is  the  coolest  one  can  obtain. 

References:  Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  9-17,  31-42, 
56-62;  Elements  of  Cooking— Williams  &  Fisher— pp.  31-33, 
39-49. 

MEASURING. 

Believing  that  most  housekeepers  prefer  measuring  to 
weighing,  the  recipes  in  this  book  are  given  almost  wholly 
by  measure.  The  measures  are  almost  invariably  even; 
for  example,  one  cup  means  one  level  cup ;  one  teaspoon- 
ful  means  one  level  teaspoonf ul ;  one  scant  cup  means  one 
tablespoonful  less  than  a  cup;  one  generous  cup  means 
one  tablespoonful  more  than  a  cup.  Eggs  vary  so  much 
in  size  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  be  exact  in  a 
recipe  which  calls  for  a  certain  number  of  eggs,  conse- 
quently the  following  recipes  generally  give  eggs  by  meas- 
ure, instead  of  by  number. 

In  order  to  eliminate  luck  from  cookery,  the  worker 
must  be  exact  in  her  measurements,  as  well  as  careful  in 
the  preparation  and  baking  of  any  dish.  Materials  differ 
in  strength  and  quality,  and  for  this  re'ason  a  little  judg- 
ment is  needed  in  making  any  dish ;  but  the  fact  that  these 
formulae  have  all  been  thoroughly  tested,  and  many  of 
them  have  been  used  by  large  classes  in  the  schoolroom, 
leads  to  the  belief  that  even  the  amateur  will  find  them 
reliable.  One  cup,  as  used  in  the  formulae,  means  one- 
half  pint;  but  it  does  not  follow  that,  in  order  to  be  ex- 
act in  her  measurements,  each  woman  must  possess  a 
graduated  measuring  cup.  It  is  easier  to  use,  and  costs 
little ;  but  knowing  that,  in  these  recipes,  sixteen  table- 
spoonfuls  equal  one  cup,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  put  six- 
teen tablespoonfuls  of  water  into  a  glass  (be  sure  that 
the  spoons  are  just  full, — neither  under  full  nor  running 
over),  and  hunt  among  your  dishes  until  you  find  a  glass 


THE   KITCHEN. 


27 


or  cup  which  will  be  just  filled  level  full  by  this  process. 
Then  keep  that  one  always  for  measuring  purposes.  Re- 
member that  success  depends  upon  accuracy  of  measure- 
ment. At  home,  the  one  cup,  with  a  teaspoon  and  table- 
spoon, is  all  that  is  necessary ;  but  in  school  work,  by 
some  methods  of  teaching,  one  needs  to  divide  a  recipe 
into  tablespoonfuls.  The  following  table  is  given  to  aid 
in  this  work: 


I 


Measuring   Dry    Materials. 

MEASURES. 

Four  teaspoonfuls  equal  one  tablespoonful. 

Sixteen  tablespoonfuls  of  liquid  equal  one  cup. 

Twelve  tablespoonfuls  of  dry  material  equal  one  cup. 

Four  cups  equal  one  quart. 

The  juice  of  one  lemon  means  one-fourth  of  a  cup. 

MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS. 

One  pint  of  butter  (packed)   equals  one  pound. 

One  quart  of  flour  (packed)   equals  one  pound. 

One  pint  of  granulated  sugar  equals  one  pound. 

One  pint  of  chopped  meat  (packed)   equals  one  pound. 

One  pint  and  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  powdered  sugar  equals  one 

pound. 

One  pint  and  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  brown  sugar  equals  one 
pound. 


28  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

One  pint  and  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  oatmeal  equals  one  pound. 
One  quart  and  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  rolled  oats  equals  one 
pound. 

For  school  work,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  the 
graduated  cups.  It  is  wise,  also,  to  have  a  number  of 
timbale  molds,  which  can  be  had  for  a  little ;  and  as  they 
can  be  gotten  in  a  size  that  holds  just  one-fourth  of  a 
cup,  they  aid  much  in  securing  accurate  measurement  by 
those  in  class  who  cannot  measure  by  the  eye,  for  anyone 
can  smooth  a  substance  off  with  a  knife,  and  have  it  al- 
ways measure  the  same. 

In  class  work,  it  is  well  (for  beginners)  to  use  the 
small-sized  timbale  molds.  Make  your  recipes  so  that 
even  measures  can  be  used ;  then  for  one- fourth  of  a  cup 
the  students  can  smooth  the  material  in  the  little  cups  off 
even  with  the  top  of  the  measure  by  using  a  kitchen 
knife ;  for  half  a  cup  they  can  take  two  of  the  measures ; 
for  three-fourths,  three,  etc.  Have  them  empty  the  con- 
tents each  time  into  their  half-pint  measure.  After  three 
months'  work  (twenty-four  lessons),  take  the  small  cups 
away,  and  let  those  who  succeed  with  the  half-pint  cup 
continue  using  it ;  let  the  others  go  back  to  the  use  of 
small  cups  again,  and  they  will  be  somewhat  chagrined, 
and  use  their  powers  of  observation  to  such  purpose  that 
they  will  soon  succeed  in  developing  some  judgment  in  the 
matter  of  measuring. 

PICKING  UP  AND  WASHING  DISHES. 

(1)  Put  away  food. 

(2)  Gather  teaspoons  and  put  in  a  small  pitcher. 

(3)  Gather  up  glasses. 

(4)  Gather  up  cups. 

(5)  Gather  up  saucers. 

(6)  Gather  up  pitchers. 

(7)  Gather  up  knives,  forks,  and  tablespoons,  and  put 
in  a  pitcher  of  water. 

(8)  Gather  the  cleanest  plates,  or  the  sauce  plates. 


THE   KITCHEN.  29 

(9)  Gather  the  dinner  plates. 

( 10)  Gather  the  butter  plates. 

Scrape  all  the  fragments  into  a  refuse  pail  as  the  dishes 
are  picked  up.  Arrange  dishes  conveniently  on  the  table 
where  they  are  to  be  washed.  When  washing  glassware 
of  any  kind,  dip  in  such  a  way  that  water  will  enter  inside 
and  outside  at  same  time,  and  it  will  be  less  liable  to 
break  them. 

Have  a  dishpan  with  plenty  of  clean,  hot,  soapy  water. 
Wash  first  the  glasses,  drain,  and  wipe  on  a  clean,  dry 
cloth,  as  they  have  thus  a  better  polish.  Cut  glass  should 
be  cleaned  with  sawdust  and  a  clean  brush  before  wash- 
ing. Next  wash  the  silver,  then  the  tinware,  drying  each 


Household  Scales. 

immediately  while  still  hot.  Throw  that  water  out,  if 
dirty,  and  with  clean,  hot  soapsuds  wash  first  the  cups, 
drain,  scald,  and  wipe,  or  drain,  if  you  have  room  to  stand 
them  up  where  the  air  can  pass  about  them,  and  put 
away  unwiped.  Treat  all  other  china  in  the  same  way, 
washing  the  cleanest  first.  If  the  washing  water  is  not 
hot,  the  change  of  temperature  may  cause  the  china  to 
crackle.  Avoid  putting  the  handles  of  steel  knives,  or  the 
tops  of  egg  beaters,  in  the  water,  as  the  handles  may  come 


30  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

off  from  the  knives,  and  the  egg  beaters  may  refuse  to 
turn,  or  may  scatter  oil  when  used. 

CLEANING  SILVER,  GLASS,  ETC. 

When  the  water  bottle  or  glass  pitcher  becomes  dis- 
colored, soak  in  ammonia  water,  or  in  water  with  a  little 
baking  soda,  and  rub  the  spots  with  baking  soda.  Alco- 
hol is  better  than  ammonia  to  moisten  the  whiting  for 
cleaning  silver,  because  the  ammonia  is  apt  to  dissolve  off 
a  portion  of  the  silver.  Better  use  whiting  or  powdered 
chalk  than  many  of  the  silver  polishes,  as  the  silver  is 
injured  less.  To  remove  egg  stains  from  silver,  rub  with 
salt  on  a  moist  cloth.  Whiting,  or  very  fine  sand,  with  a 
neutral  soap,  is  good  for  cleaning  tinware.  To  prevent 
iron  utensils  rusting  while  not  in  use,  coat  with  kerosene 
and  lamp-black. 

The  cloth  that  the  dishes  are  washed  with  should  never 
be  left  wet  or  hung  under  the  sink,  but  should  be  rinsed 
out  and  dried  at  once, — in  the  sunshine,  if  possible.  Once 
a  week  it  should  be  boiled  in  soapsuds  after  washing  well, 
and  then  dried. 

For  tea  towels,  linen  crash  is  probably  the  best,  be- 
cause it  absorbs  water  well,  and  is  easily  laundered.  But 
muslin  flour  sacks,  hemmed,  will  serve  the  purpose  very 
well  if  laundered  each  week  before  too  much  soiled.  The 
cloths  for  wiping  ironware,  such  as  kettles,  bread  pans, 
etc.,  should  be  made  of  crash,  because  it  is  so  difficult  to 
wash  the  stains  from  them.  The  iron  must  be  wiped,  be- 
cause, if  left  to  dry  on  the  range,  it  may  become  rough. 
There  should  be  cloths  of  some  soft  material  for  lifting 
things  about  the  range.  When  an  iron  or  granite  ware 
kettle  has  had  something  burned  in  it,  it  should  have 
some  water  and  a  little  washing  soda  or  concentrated  lye 
put  into  it,  and  be  allowed  to  stand  where  it  will  keep 
warm  for  a  while,  then  the  water  should  be  poured  off, 
and  the  burned  portion  of  the  kettle  scraped  with  an  oys- 


THE   KITCHEN.  31 

ter  shell,  a  wire  dish  washer,  or  something  of  the  kind. 
It  should  then  be  rinsed  with  clear  water,  washed  and 
rubbed  with  a  cloth  on  which  a  little  sapolio  has  been 
placed  by  rubbing  the  cloth  over  the  cake. 

To  prevent  omelet  pans  sticking,  rub  with  salt.  When 
onions  or  cabbage  have  been  cooked  in  a  kettle,  it  should 
be  filled  with  water  after  washing,  and  a  little  washing 
soda  or  lye  added  and  allowed  to  boil,  and  afterwards 
washed  well  and  wiped.  This  will  remove  odor. 

Wooden  articles  should  be  soaked  with  water  as  little 
as  possible  in  washing,  and  dried  in  a  gentle  heat.  If 
placed  near  the  fire  they  are  very  apt  to  crack. 

Steel  knives  and  forks  should  be  cleaned  with  brick 
dust  after  each  meal.  The  cut  surface  of  a  raw  potato  is 
a  good  thing  to  rub  them  with,  as  it  keeps  constantly 
moist.  A  piece  of  cork  is  also  good.  After  scouring, 
wash  in  soapsuds  and  wipe  dry. 

The  garbage  pail  should  be  washed  after  each  meal,  and 
scrubbed  each  laundry  day. 

TO   CLEAN    THE   SINK. 

Wash  with  hot  water  in  a  dishpan  and  a  brush,  being- 
certain  that  every  groove  is  reached.  Pour  the  water 
from  the  dishpan  into  the  sink,  and  let  it  drain  out.  Fill 
the  pan  again  with  hot  water,  and  again  wash  the  sink, 
and  wipe  dry,  if  it  is  not  to  be  used  again  soon.  The 
sink  should  be  flushed  three  times  a  week  with  boiling 
salsoda  water,  made  in  the  proportion  of  one  pint  of  sal- 
soda  to  three  gallons  of  water.  Use  at  least  two  quarts 
of  the  hot  salsoda  water  each  time,  allowing  it  to  run 
boiling  hot  down  the  pipe,  and  pour  clear  boiling  water 
in  at  once  when  the  other  disappears.  If  the  sink  be- 
comes rusty,  rub  well  with  un salted  fat  on  the  bottom  and 
sides,  and  allow  it  to  stay  on  over  night,  or  several  hours ; 
then  wash  it  off  with  hot  soapsuds,  and  wipe  the  sink  dry, 


32  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

TO    CLEAN    THE   REFRIGERATOR. 

Wash  shelves  and  bottom  of  refrigerator  once  a  week 
with  clear  warm  water,  and  wipe  dry,  if  shelves  are  not 
movable.  If  shelves  can  be  moved,  take  them  out,  and 
wash  with  soapsuds,  and  scald,  and  wipe  dry.  When 
cool,  return  to  their  places.  In  every  case  see  that  crevices 
are  thoroughly  cleaned.  Once  in  two  weeks  take  ice  all 
out,  and  wash  ice  chest  well ;  also  clean  waste  pipe  by 
probing  with  a  white  cloth  tied  onto  the  end  of  a  stick 
that  is  certain  not  to  break, — a  piece  of  an  old  whip  stock 
is  good. 


CHAPTER  III 

METHODS  OP  COOKING, 

Methods  of  cooking  may  be  divided  into  four  general 
classes,  —  broiling,  boiling,  baking,  and  frying. 

(  Broiling-  over  coals.  (  Boiling-  proper. 

Broiling-  -  Pan  broiling-.  Boiling-  •<  Steaming-. 

(  Oven  broiling-.  (  Stewing-. 


Bakinsr   •!  Bakinff-  Frvimr  J  Frying"  in  d«ep  fat. 

ngr    I  Roasting.  Drying-  ^  Sauteing> 

In  broiling,  an  article  of  food  is  subjected  to  radiant 
heat,  which  usually  reaches  the  article  being  cooked,  from 
one  side  only.  In  broiling  proper,  this  heat  comes  from  a 
bed  of  glowing,  smokeless  coals,  and  the  article  to  be 
cooked  is  supported  by  a  few  wires.  In  pan  broiling,  the 
heat  is  conducted  by  a  hot  metal  surface,  as  a  hot  griddle, 
and  the  article  to  be  cooked  lies  on  the  radiating  surface. 
In  oven  broiling,  the  medium  is  hot  air,  and  the  process 
differs  from  baking  only  in  having  much  more  intense 
heat,  as  the  article  to  be  cooked  is  thin,  and  requires  an 
intense  heat,  because  it  must  be  cooked  quickly,  and  be 
served  while  still  juicy  and  hot. 

When  food  is  boiled,  it  is  enveloped  in  hot  water.  In 
some  cases,  the  water  should  boil  rapidly  all  the  time, 
as  in  cooking  potatoes,  carrots,  etc.  In  other  cases,  it 
should  not  bubble  at  all,  but  be  kept  near  the  boiling 
point.  The  reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  articles  on 
cooking  vegetables  and  meats. 

Stewing  is  a  combination  of  two  methods,  —  boiling 
and  steaming,  —  only  a  little  water  being  used,  and  the 
article  to  be  cooked  placed  in  a  closed  vessel  with  tight- 
fitting  cover,  so  that  the  confined  steam  aids  the  small 
amount  of  hot  water  in  making  the  food  tender. 


34  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

In  steaming,  the  food  is  placed  above  hot  water,  and 
the  vessel  is  covered  so  closely  that  the  steam  surrounds 
the  food  and  cooks  it.  This  is  an  excellent  method  of 
cooking  such  vegetables  as  potatoes,  parsnips,  etc.  When 
foods  such  as  cereals,  steamed  bread,  etc.,  are  cooked  in 
a  vessel  surrounded  by  hot  water,  we  call  the  process 
steaming,  though  the  steam  does  not  touch  the  food,  but 
the  heat  is  conducted  to  it  by  means  of  the  metal  or 
porcelain  vessel  containing  the  article  to  be  cooked. 

In  baking,  the  article  to  be  cooked  is  surrounded  by 
hot  air.  In  roasting,  the  heating  medium  is  the  same. 

In  frying,  the  food  is  surrounded  by  hot  fat.  In  sau- 
teing,  a  small  quantity  of  fat  is  used,  and  articles  which 
would  be  tough  when  fried  or  broiled  are  made  tender 
by  first  browning  in  the  fat,  and  then  subjecting  to  a 
long,  slow  cooking,  the  spider  being  closely  covered  all 
the  time. 

Braising  might  be  termed  "oven  stewing,"  as  a  small 
amount  of  water  is  used,  and  the  closely-covered  vessel 
containing  the  food  is  kept  in  the  oven  while  the  article 
cooks. 

OBJECT  OF  COOKING. 

The  value  of  food  for  nutriment  depends  not  only 
on  the  amount  of  nutrients  it  contains,  but  also  on  the 
amount  of  these  the  body  can  digest  and  use  for  its  sup- 
port. 

Cooking  changes  the  texture  of  food,  making  it  in 
some  cases  more,  and  in  others  less,  digestible;  hence 
we  should  first  ascertain  whether  cooking  will  improve 
the  flavor  and  digestibility  of  the  article  of  food.  In 
general,  the  digestibility  of  animal  foods  is  diminished 
by  cooking,  and  that  of  vegetables  increased,  though 
there  are  exceptions.  Vegetable  foods  are  more  difficult 
of  digestion  than  animal  foods,  and  their  preparation  is 
more  complicated  and  thorough.  The  nutritive  substances 
are  inclosed  in  cells  often  with  thick  walls,  and  hence  are 


METHODS    OP   COOKING.  35 

not  readily  acted  upon  by  the  digestive  fluids.  When 
vegetables  are  boiled  in  water,  the  contents  of  the  cells 
expand  and  burst  through  these  walls.  The  fragrant  and 
savory  substances  are  set  free  with  the  other  substances 
which  were  imprisoned  in  the  cells,  and  their  astringency 
and  bitterness  are  tempered.  Some  of  the  constituents 
are  dissolved  by  water,  or  suffer  other  changes.  Starch, 
an  important  ingredient  in  many  vegetable  foods,  such 
as  potato,  wheat,  rice,  etc.,  takes  up  water  and  assumes 
the  soft  pasty  condition  which  is  necessary  for  its  trans- 
formation into  soluble  dextrine  and  sugar,  which  shows 
that  the  cooking  of  starchy  foods  is  necessary. 

The  boiling  of  vegetables  may,  indeed,  be  termed  a 
preparatory  digestive  process.  Cells  of  other  plants  be- 
have like  the  starch-bearing  potato.  The  seeds  of  le- 
gumes, such  as  beans,  peas,  and  lentils,  are,  in  their  nat- 
ural state,  difficult  of  digestion,  because  their  starch  gran- 
ules lie  closely  packed  within  the  indigestible  cell  walls. 
On  boiling,  the  starch  swells,  the  cells  burst,  and  their 
contents  are  changed  into  a  pulpy  mass, — a  very  nutri- 
tious and  digestible  dish. 

References:  Art  of  Cookery — Ewing — p.  33;  Elements  of 
Cookery — Williams  &  Fisher- pp.  52,  53;  The  Chemistry  of 
Cookery— Mattieu  Williams — pp.  8-12. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

WATER. 

Sources  of  Water, 

Water  plays  a  very  important  part  in  this  world  of 
ours.  It  is  encountered  in  minerals  as  a  chemical  con- 
stituent. It  enters  very  largely  into  the  composition  of 
,-iii  things  of  vegetable  growth,  from  the  blade  of  grass 
to  the  sturdy  oak.  Many  vegetables,  as  cabbage,  pota- 
toes, celery,  lettuce,  etc.,  are  composed  largely  of  water. 
Fruit  also  contains  a  large  amount  of  water.  The  bodies 
of  all  animals  contain  much  water.  If  the  water  could 
all  be  removed  from  a  human  body,  a  very  small  weight 
would  balance  what  is  left.  Since  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, as  well  as  animal  foods,  are  composed  so 
largely  of  water,  a  human  being  takes  much  water  in 
his  food,  and  this  is  the  same  as  other  water,  so  far  as 
its  work  in  the  body  is  concerned.  Water  is  taken  in 
also  with  the  air  which  is  breathed.  A  body  composed 
so  largely  of  water  as  is  that  of  the  human  being  needs 
much  more  water  than  the  food  and  air  supply.  Much  is 
needed  to  enable  the  body  to  perform  its  necessary  func- 
tions, and  the  skin  must  be  kept  clean  to  aid  the  internal 
organs  in  their  ceaseless  and  worthy  efforts  to  excrete 
watery  solutions  and  keep  the  person  in  good  health. 

Nature  has  supplied  this  universal  solvent  very  plenti- 
fully, and  distributed  it  over  much  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face, and  under  some  portions  of  it.  Water  for  the 
nourishment  of  men  and  animals  is  derived  largely 
from  rain  water  stored  in  cisterns,  etc.,  and  from  springs, 
lakes,  rivers,  and  wells.  The  term  "rain  water"  is  ap- 
plied to  the  water  which  reaches  us  from  the  clouds,  di- 
rect, whether  in  the  form  of  rain,  hail,  or  snow.  Rain 


WATER.  37 

water  should  be  allowed  to  fall  a  sufficient  length  of  time 
to  wash  the  dust  particles  and  other  impurities  from  the 
air,  and  the  smoke  and  dust  from  the  roof ,  before  it  is 
allowed  to  enter  the  cistern.  A  cistern  should  be  walled 
with  material  practically  insoluble  in  water,  and  well  ce- 
mented. It  should  be  kept  well  covered,  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  all  impurities. 

Rain  or  melting  snow  is  the  usual  source  of  spring 
water.  The  water  sinks  into  the  earth,  and  percolates 
through  layer  after  layer,  until  it  reaches-  an  impervious 
stratum  of  rock  or  clay.  There  it  rests  until  the  ac- 
cumulation is  so  great  that  it  must  have  more  room.  It 
then  breaks  through  the  soil  at  some  lower  level  in  the 
form  of  a  spring.  Rivers  usually  have  their  source  in 
a  lake  situated  among  the  mountains,  or  on  other  high 
land.  These  lakes  receive  the  water  from  the  melting 
snows  on  the  surrounding  heights,  and  from  the  rain- 
fall, as  well  as  that  which  seeps  through  the  rocks. 
When  the  lake  basin  can  hold  no  more  water,  a  tiny 
.stream  flows  out  over  the  lower  land,  and  receives 
similar  streams  and  large  rivers  until,  when  it  reaches 
the  sea,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  water.  Lakes  are 
formed  by  melting  snow  and  rain,  which  flow  in  small 
streams  into  a  basin  having  a  bottom  impervious  to  wa- 
ter. Wells  are  artificial  openings  into  underground  water, 
and  are  of  three  kinds.  Shallow  wells  from  fifteen  to 
fifty  feet  are  dug,  and  walled  with  brick  or  stone.  These 
are  fed  by  surface  water,  and  are  often  visibily  affected 
by  copious  rainfall  or  protracted  drouth.  Driven  wells 
are  deeper,  and  often  pass  through  a  layer  of  some  ma- 
terial which  is  impervious  to  water.  Artesian  wells  are 
sometimes  of  very  great  depth,  ranging  from  some  hun- 
dreds to  a  few  thousand  feet  deep. 

•Composition  of  Water. 

Pure  water  is  made  up  of  two  gases, — hydrogen  and 


38  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

oxygen, — in  the  proportion  of  one  part  oxygen  to  two 
parts  hydrogen  by  volume.  It  is  represented  by  the  sym- 
bol "H2O."  Pure  water  is  colorless,  tasteless,  and  odor- 
less. Pure  water  is  never  found  in  nature.  Put  a  clean 
glass  where  the  rain  can  fall  unobstructed  through  the  air 
into  it  during  the  latter  part  of  a  shower,  and  you  will  have 
water  as  nearly  pure  as  it  occurs  in  nature.  Rain  water 
absorbs  gases  of  which  the  atmosphere  is  composed, — 
nitrogen  and  oxygen  and  carbon  dioxide  and  a  small 
amount  of  ammonia.  It  usually  contains  dust  taken  from 
the  air,  and  may  contain  small  amounts  of  soluble  sub- 
stances, particles  of  which  were  floating  in  the  air.  That 
which  flows  over  the  roofs  of  buildings  is  likely  to  con- 
tain smoke,  in  addition  to  the  other  impurities.  Rain 
water  which  flows  over  or  through  portions  of  the  earth, 
as  in  the  formation  of  rivers,  lakes,  and  springs,  takes  up 
something  in  the  form  of  soluble  portions  of  soils,  rocks, 
and  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  matter  found  in  its 
course.  Many  substances  are  soluble  in  water,  and  food 
nutrients  needed  by  some  plants  are  found  in  water,  so 
that  water  which  falls  on  a  mountainous  region  has  a 
very  different  composition  when  it  reaches  the  sea,  or 
an  underground  river  or  lake,  from  what  it  had  when  it 
first  reached  the  earth.  Rain  water  which  falls  in  the 
latter  part  of  a  shower  is  purer  than  that  which  falls 
in  the  first  part,  and  the  water  which  falls  in  winter  is 
purer  than  that  which  falls  in  summer. 

Food  Value  of  Water. 

Water  is  not  a  "nutrient,"  in  the  sense  in  which  the 
word  is  generally  used,  but  it  is  indispensable  for  nour- 
ishment, for  it  is  a  universal  solvent,  and  a  very  conven- 
ient means  of  carrying  the  nutrients  to  the  places  where 
they  are  needed.  It  also  carries  waste  products  to  places 
of  exit,  and  conveys  the  surplus  heat  from  the  places 
where  it  is  manufactured  to  the  outside  of  the  body,  so  that 
the  temperature  may  be  equalized,  the  blood  purified,  and 


WATER.  39 

the  tissues  built  up  or  repaired.  The  frequent  application 
of  water  to  the  outside  of  the  body  aids  in  the  work  of 
purification  of  the  body 'by  keeping  the  pores  of  the  skin 
open,  so  that  some  of  the  waste  products  may  be  freely 
eliminated. 

Perfect  purity  is  not  necessary  in  drinking  water,  but 
it  should  be  free  from  visible  particles,  and  should  have 
no  disagreeable  taste  or  smell,  either  when  fresh,  or  after 
it  has  stood  for  a  time  in  a  clean  closed  vessel.  It  should 
contain  enough  of  the  gases  of  the  air  to  prevent  its  tast- 
ing flat,  like  distilled  or  long-boiled  water.  It  should 
contain  only  a  small  amount  of  dissolved  mineral  mat- 
ter, and  this  should  not  be  of  a  poisonous  nature, — as  lead 
from  pipes,  etc.  Water  should  be  free  from  decaying 
animal  or  vegetable  matter.  Impurities  of  animal  matter 
or  the  excreta  of  animals  are  usually  more  dangerous  than 
those  of  vegetable  origin.  Water  which  has  more  than  a 
trace  of  such  matter  is  not  safe.  The  purity  of  water 
cannot  always  be  judged  by  its  appearance,  odor,  or 
taste.  Water  which  is  clear  and  sparkling  and  tastes 
well  may  contain  the  germs  of  some  dread  disease;  and 
water  may  contain  the  dead  bodies  of  harmless  confervae 
and  Crustacea,  minute  sponges,  etc.,  to  such  a  degree  as 
to  cause  it  to  smell  bad  for  a  time,  without  perceptibly 
injuring  the  one  who  drinks  of  it.  If  there  is  any  ques- 
tion about  the  wholesomeness  of  water,  boil  it,  and  let 
it  cool  before  using.  So  far  as  lies  in  your  power,  keep 
the  surroundings  clean.  Pure  water  is  "clean"  in  every 
sense  of  the  word.  Water  in  which  sodium  and  magne- 
sium salts  are  present  in  such  small  quantities  as  not  to 
render  it  hard  is  desirable.  When  the  conditions  are  such 
that  the  calcium  or  magnesium  carbonate  can  be  precipi- 
tated by  continued  boiling  the  water  is  called  "temporary 
hard"  water,  because  the  hardness  can  be  removed  by 
boiling.  The  carbonate  is  not  readily  soluble  in  pure 
water,  but  is  soluble  in  water  containing  carbon  dioxide 


40  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

gas.  Boiling  drives  the  carbon  dioxide  gas  off,  and  the 
calcium  or  magnesium  carbonate  is  precipitated.  The  in- 
crustation thus  formed  on  the  inside  of  the  tea  kettle  can 
be  removed  by  setting  it  out  to  freeze.  When  the  calcium 
and  magnesium  occur  as  sulphates,  they  cannot  be  precipi- 
tated by  boiling,  and  the  water  is  known  as  "permanent 
hard"  water. 

A  comparatively  soft  water  is  considered  best  for  cook- 
ing some  vegetables,  as  beans,  peas,  etc.,  as  the  hard  wa- 
ter seems  to  have  a  less  softening  effect  on  them.  In 
cooking  some  other  vegetables,  the  kind  of  water  used 
seems  to  make  little  difference.  Moderately  hard  water 
is  considered  better  than  very  soft  water  for  making  tea 
and  coffee,  because  it  dissolves  less  tannin,  and  the  bev- 
erage is  thus  more  wholesome.  Soft  water  is  far  pref- 
erable for  cleaning  and  for  all  laundry  work,  as  it  re- 
quires less  soap  and  labor,  and  gives  better  results. 

Sources  of  Impurities  in  Water. 

Harmful  impurities  in  rain  water  may  be  avoided  by 
preventing  the  water  entering  the  cistern  before  the  air 
and  the  roofs  of  buildings  have  been  thoroughly  washed, 
and  then  keeping  the  cistern  covered,  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  leaves,  insects,  etc. 

Spring  water  necessarily  contains  some  mineral  matter 
—more  in  calcareous  than  in  silicious  regions — which  it 
dissolved  as  it  passed  through  the  soil,  and  it  may  have 
dissolved  some  animal  matter,  if  any  dead  carcass  or  ani- 
mal excreta  lay  on  the  soil  over  which  it  passed.  It  usual- 
ly contains  some  vegetable  matter,  obtained  from  dead 
leaves,  though  organic  matter  is  usually  found  in  small 
amount  in  spring  water.  Lakes  which  lie  high  up 
among  the  mountains  are  usually  replenished  by  water 
which  flows  over  uncultivated  lands.  Such  lakes  fre- 
quently have  rocky  bottoms,  and  are  consequently  quite 
free  from  contamination  if  they  are  remote  from  human 
habitations,  and  have  an  outlet,  that  they  may  be  purified 


WATER.  41 

by  subsidence,  and  kept  fresh  by  constant  change.  Lakes 
which  have  no  outlet  contain  much  mineral  matter  on 
account  of  constant  evaporation.  Lakes  in  thickly-settled 
regions  receive  much  mineral  matter  and  other  impuri- 
ties brought  by  the  streams  which  flow  over  cultivated 
regions.  They  may  also  receive  garbage,  sewage,  etc., 
from  cities  and  towns  on  their  shores. 

River  water  always  contains  mineral  matter,  the  amount 
varying  under  different  conditions.  A  river  which  has 
its  source  on  high,  uncultivated  ground  usually  has  purer 
water  near  its  source  than  farther  down.  Much  depends, 
also,  on  the  formation  of  the  soil  through  which  it  flows. 
It  is  also  different  when  swollen  by  heavy  and  frequent 
rains  than  after  protracted  dryness.  River  water  is  very 
apt  to  be  polluted  by  decaying  animal  and  vegetable  mat- 
ters, as  vegetation  on  its  shores,  the  bodies  of  dead  ani- 
mals, as  fish,  etc.  The  refuse  from  factories  and  the  sew- 
age from  cities  frequently  find  their  way  into  the  near-by 
river.  It  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  supply  cities 
with  water  from  a  river  or  lake.  In  this  case,  some 
means  of  purifying  is  resorted  to,  as  filtering  through 
beds  of  sand,  etc.  Household  filters  can  be  had,  but  un- 
less they  are  kept  scrupulously  clean,  the  water  is  worse 
with  than  without  filtering. 

The  water  of  wells  contains  mineral  matter  dissolved 
from  the  soil  and  rocks  through  which  it  passed.  Some 
well  waters  have  much  more  mineral  matter  than  others ; 
this  depends  largely  on  whether  the  well  is  situated  in  a 
silicious  or  a  calcareous  region.  Well  water  is  not  free 
from  organic  impurities,  as  water  carries  them  long  dis- 
tances through  porous  soil.  Of  the  three  mentioned,  arte- 
sian wells  are  least  apt  to  be  so  contaminated.  Shal- 
low wells  are  the  most  commonly  so  polluted.  There 
is  more  danger  from  such  wells  in  the  village  than 
in  the  country,  for,  however  cleanly  a  person  may  be,  he 
has  several  neighbors  near  enough  so  that  a  little  careless- 
ness on  their  part  may  in  a  few  days  cause  disease  germs 


42  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

to  enter  the  water  of  a  well  that  has  been  used  for  years, 
and  never  found  unwholesome. 

Though  there  is  less  danger  of  pollution  in  the  well 
water  at  the  farm  hoiise,  it  is  far  from  being  free  from 
danger.  As  the  well  is  merely  an  opening  into  this  un- 
derground lake  or  river,  it  will  be  as  surely  polluted  by 
solid  garbage  thrown  on  the  ground  to  be  washed  by 
the  rains,  and  carried  through  the  earth  into  it,  as  though 
it  were  thrown  on  its  visible  surface.  The  piggery,  the 
barn,  the  henhouse,  etc.,  are  fruitful  sources  of  contami- 
nation unless  they  be  well  removed  and  on  lower  ground. 
No  one  would  think  of  throwing  the  kitchen  slops  into 
the  well,  but  they  sometimes  find  their  way  into  it  when 
thrown  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

References:  Johnson's  Encyclopedia;  Drinking  Water  and 
Ice  Supplies — Prudden. 


CHAPTER  V. 

VEGETABLES. 

What  Place  Should  Vegetables  Have  in  the  Diet? 

The  cereal  products  and  potatoes  make  up  the  bulk 
of  the  vegetable  substance  of  our  diet.  There  are,  how- 
ever, other  vegetables  which  should  be  daily  used.  Some 
of  these  cannot  be  said  to  have  a  large  amount  of  nutri- 
ment, yet  there  is  something  in  their  cool  and  crisp 
natures,  their  vegetable  acids  and  other  constituents, 
which  exert  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  system.  It  is 
said  that  the  early  Romans  so  fully  appreciated  the  use 
of  vegetable  foods  that  they  enacted  laws  compelling 
their  people  to  combine  them  freely  with  meats  in  their 
dietaries.  If  the  American  people  would  use  vegetables 
freely  with  their  diet  of  bread,  meat,  and  potatoes,  they 
would  have  much  more  reason  to  hope  for  happy  and 
healthy  old  age. 


Lettuce  is  chief  among  the  salad  plants.  It  has  many 
virtues.  It  is  dainty  and  delicate ;  wholesome  at  any 
meal,  but  generally  used  at  dinner.  It  combines  har- 
moniously with  almost  any  kind  of  meat.  It  admits  of 
a  number  of  different  dressings,  but  is  almost  univer- 
sally relished,  even  when  dressed  in  the  simplest  man- 


44  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

ner.  The  leaves  of  lettuce  should  never  be  bruised. 
The  tender  leaves  brought  fresh  from  the  garden  should 
be  washed  in  clean,  cold  water,  and  relieved  from  moist- 
ure by  tumbling  about  in  a  white  cloth.  It  may  be 
served  just  as  it  is,  allowing  each  guest  to  dress  it  sim- 
ply with  vinegar  and  salt,  or  more  elaborately,  as  is  pre- 
ferred. 

Endive  or  winter  lettuce  is  also  valuable,  because, 
being  more  hardy  than  lettuce  proper,  it  can  be  had  in 
early  spring,  when  green  vegetables  are  scarce.  When 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  leaves  are  more  acrid  and  tough 
than  those  of  lettuce.  It  can  be  bleached  so  that  it  is 
crisp,  tender  and  appetizing.  It  is  dressed  and  used  in 
the  same  way  as  lettuce. 

Watercress,  that  aromatic  and  pungent  herb  which 
grows  wild  in  some  localities  along  the  edges  of  ponds 
of  fresh  water,  near  springs,  and  upon  the  banks  of  small 
streams, — always  where  there  is  plenty  of  water, — has 
a  very  pleasant  flavor,  and  is  relished  by  many.  The 
cultivated  varieties  are  more  tender  than  the  wild  ones. 

Rhubarb,  on  account  of  its  pleasant  flavor  and  early 
appearance  in  the  spring,  is  a  welcome  visitor.  It  is 
ready  for  use  long  before  any  fruit,  or  even  the  prin- 
cipal salad  plants.  It  can  be  used  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
so  that  one  does  not  readily  tire  of  it.  When  stewed 
in  a  very  little  water  and  sweetened,  it  makes  a  good 
substitute  for  fruit  sauce.  It  is  very  acceptable  in  pie, 
and  those  who  have  tried  it  in  a  shortcake  served  with 
whipped  cream  can  give  evidence  of  its  merits  in  this 
capacity. 

There  are  many  plants  belonging  to  the  cabbage  fam- 
ily,— different  kinds  of  kale,  Brussells  sprouts,  broccoli, 
cauliflower,  etc.  A  dish  of  sauerkraut  makes  a  pleasant 
variety  during  the  long  winter  months,  when  vegetables 
are  scarce.  This  German  dish  is  said  to  prevent  scurvy 
quite  as  efficiently  as  lemon  juice  or  green  vegetables. 


VEGETABLES.  45 

Crisp,  tender  cabbage,  when  finely  shredded  and 
dressed  for  the  table  raw,  is,  for  many,  more  wholesome 
and  digestible  than  cooked  cabbage.  Young  onions  are 
to  most  people  very  agreeable  and  digestible.  Celery 
has  a  tenderness  and  delicacy  of  flavor  which,  added  to 
the  benefit  which  the  system  derives  from  its  use,  should 
gain  for  it  a  place  in  every  farmer's  garden. 

There  are  other  vegetables  used  as  salads,  but  these 
which  are  mentioned  are  all  common,  and  with  such  a 
variety  there  need  never  be  a  time  during  the  summer 
season  when  one  feels  the  need  of  anything  further  in 
the  line  of  food  materials. 

Spinach  is  an  early  spring  vegetable,  and  makes  a  fine 
dish  of  greens. 

All  vegetables  lose  something  either  in  flavor  or  constit- 
uents, or  both,  by  cooking.  White  beans  are  easily  had 
for  winter  use,  and  are  a  food  rich  in  the  flesh  forming  ele- 
ments. Dry  beans,  like  cereals,  seem  to  benefit  the  person 
eating  them  very  little  unless  thoroughly  cooked.  Twelve 
to  twenty  hours'  cooking  is  necessary  to  render  them  the 
most  palatable  and  digestible ;  but  as  the  fire  seldom  goes 
out  in  the  kitchen  range  during  winter,  their  preparation 
requires  little  extra  time  or  attention.  The  small  white  kid- 
ney bean  is  best,  on  account  of  its  thin  skin  and  fine  flavor. 
There  are  several  reasons  for  the  long,  slow  cooking  nec- 
essary in  dry  beans,  peas,  and  lentils.  One  is  to  soften 
the  paper-like  membrane  in  which  each  nutritive  particle 
is  bound  up.  Another  is  to  so  soften  and  change  the 
proteid  matter  as  to  render  it  more  palatable  and  more 
easily  acted  on  by  the  digestive  fluids.  Another  reason 
for  long  cooking  is  that  the  legume  softens  and  is  pene- 
trated by  the  seasonings  used,  which  renders  it  more 
palatable.  Split  peas  have  the  outside  skin  removed  and 
are  for  this  reason  easier  made  use  of  by  those  who 
are  disturbed  by  the  skins  of  legumes.  All  legumes  may  be 
passed  through  a  sieve  to  free  from  skins,  as  in  making 


46  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

purees.  Some  beans  may  be  soaked  until  the  skins  can  be 
rubbed  off  between  the  hands. 

In  seasoning  cooked  vegetables,  our  object  is  to  em- 
phasize and  bring  out  delicate  flavors,  and  tone  down 
such  flavors  as  are  too  prominent.  A  little  cream  adds 
much  to  the  flavor  of  some  vegetables. 

Green  corn  is  a  universal  favorite,  and  is  very  gener- 
ally used  in  its  season.  It  has  no  further  need  of  season- 
ing than  to  bring  out  the  delicious  flavor,  and  this  can  be 
best  done  by  steaming. 

Some  green  vegetables  can  be  dried  for  winter  use 
and  be  as  palatable  as  when  canned.  The  process  of 
drying  requires  little,  if  any,  more  time  or  labor  than 
does  canning. 

To  Dry  Corn. 

Pick  it  when  just  in  prime  condition  for  roasting  ears, 
husk,  silk,  and  remove  from  the  cob  the  same  as  for  cook- 
ing. Dry  in  a  current  of  air  as  quickly  as  possible,  tie  up 
in  a  bag  and  keep  in  a  dry  place. 

To  Dry  String  Beans. 

Gather  them  when  just  right  for  present  use,  string, 
and  prepare  as  for  cooking.  Spread  in  a  shady  place 
where  the  air  circultes  freely,  and,  when  dry,  treat  in  the 
sarne  manner  as  corn. 

REMARKS. 

Use  each  vegetable  very  often  while  it  is  in  season. 
Asparagus  seldom  lasts  long  enough  for  the  family  to 
tire  of  it.  Peas  are  always  welcome,  especially  if  cream 
is  used  in  dressing  them.  Peas  are  sweeter  when  the 
pods  are  washed  and  boiled  until  soft,  then  skimmed  out, 
and  the  peas  cooked  in  the  water.  Most  people  will  wel- 
come tomatoes  in  some  form  once  a  day  during  the 
entire  summer. 

For  cooking  some  vegetables,   use  a  kettle  having  a 


VEGETABLES.  47 

tight-fitting  cover.  Food  will  cook  in  a  less  amount  of 
water  when  the  steam  is  confined  within  the  vessel  than 
when  the  medium  for  cooking  must  be  hot  water  en- 
tirely. 

Most  vegetables  may  be  steamed  instead  of  boiled  if 
one  has  utensils  for  so  cooking. 

The  kettle  in  which  potatoes  are  cooked  should  be 
used  for  nothing  else,  if  one  wishes  potatoes  to  be  as 
white  as  possible. 

In  all  vegetables,  aim  to  have  the  water  mostly  cooked 
out,  unless  the  flavor  is  too  great,  and  you  parboil  the 
vegetable. 

In  cooking  some  vegetables,  such  as  carrots,  cabbage, 
and  parsnips,  the  water  in  which  they  are  cooked  need 
not  be  thrown  away. 


While  stewing  is  usually  done  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  carrots,  beans, 
onions,  turnips,  and  some  other  highly-flavored  vege- 
tables are  improved  in  flavor  by  parboiling  and  draining. 
Much  of  the  nutritive  part  of  the  vegetable  is  sacrificed 
in  thus  obtaining  the  best  flavor.  It  is  undoubtedly  better 
to  use  little  water  in  the  cooking,  and  tone  the  flavor 
by  using  an  appropriate  dressing. 


48  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Prozen  Vegetables. 

Are,  at  best,  inferior,  but  when  it  is  necessary  to  use 
such,  soak  them  in  cold  water  until  thawed  before  pre- 
paring for  use.  Then  put  to  cook  in  boiling  water,  and 
cook  rapidly  until  done. 

References:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin 
No.  43,  pp.  7-8,  13;  Food  Products  of  the  World — Green — pp. 
158-161,  196-199;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  121;  Minnesota  Bulle- 
tin No.  54,  pp.  58-61  ;Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  490-492. 

STEAMING,   BAKING  AND  BOILING  VEGETABLES. 

Effect  of  Cooking  on  Food  Value  of  Potatoes. 

The  following  conclusions  are  taken  from  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  43 : 

"(i)  In  order  to  obtain  the  highest  food  value,  pota- 
toes should  not  be  peeled  before  cooking. 

"(2)  When  potatoes  are  pared  before  cooking,  the 
least  loss  is  sustained  by  putting  them  directly  into  hot 
water,  and  boiling  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Even  then  the 
loss  is  very  considerable. 

"(3)  If  potatoes  are  pared  and  soaked  in  cold  water 
before  boiling,  the  loss  of  nutrients  is  very  great,  being 
one-fourth  of  all  the  albuminoid  matter.  In  a  bushel  of 
potatoes,  the  loss  would  be  equivalent  to  a  pound  of 
sirloin  steak." 

Plain  Boiled  Potatoes, 

Select  potatoes  of  uniform  size.  Wash  clean  in  cold 
water,  using  a  vegetable  brush.  Rinse  and  pare,  remov- 
ing a  thin  paring,  and  taking  out  the  eyes,  if  necessary. 
As  soon  as  pared,  rinse  in  clear  water,  and  put  to  cook 
in  such  a  quantity  of  boiling  salted  water  that  it  will  be 
nearly  boiled  away  when  the  potatoes  are  soft.  Drain 
off  the  water  which  remains,  remove  to  the  back  of  range, 
throw  a  white  cloth  over  the  potatoes  to  absorb  the  moist- 
ure, and  they  are  ready  to  serve.  A  medium-sized  po- 
tato will  cook  in  about  twenty-five  minutes.  To  cook 


VEGETABLES.  49 

potatoes  in  their  skins,  follow  the  same  method.  Potatoes 
which  are  pared  before  cooking  will  give  the  whitest  and 
nicest-looking  mashed  potatoes,  but  they  have  less  food 
value  than  those  pared  after  cooking.  Potatoes  are  as 
nice  steamed  as  boiled  and  probably  have  greater  food 
value. 

Emergency  Potatoes. 

Select  potatoes  with  a  smooth  skin  and  of  medium 
size,  scrub  them,  cover  with  boiling  water,  and  let  boil 
about  ten  minutes,  drain  off  the  water  and  put  potatoes  to 
bake.  They  will  then  bake  quicker,  and  be  almost  as 
good,  as  when  wholly  cooked  in  the  oven. 

Baked  Potatoes. 

Select  and  wash  as  above.  Put  to  bake  on  the  bottom 
of  a  clean,  moderately  hot  oven.,  When  done,  take  each 
potato  in  a  cloth,  and  squeeze  until  it  breaks  a  little, 
allowing  the  steam  to  escape,  or  pierce  each  with  a 
skewer  or  fork.  Serve  at  once. 

Baked  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Prepare  and  bake  as  white  potatoes.  Serve  as  soon  as 
done,  as  they  become  soggy  if  allowed  to  stand. 

Browned  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Pare  cold  baked  or  boiled  sweet  potatoes,  and  pour 
over  them  a  mixture  of  water,  sugar  and  butter,  using 
one-quarter  cup  of  water  and  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar 
and  one  of  butter  for  three  potatoes  cut  in  half  length- 
wise. Bake  until  browned. 

Mashed  Potatoes. 

Wash,  pare,  and  remove  imperfect  parts  from  pota- 
toes, and  put  to  steam,  or  put  to  cook  in  a  small  amount  of 
boiling  water,  allowing  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  each  pint 
of  water,  and  boil  rapidly  until  done. 

Do  not  allow  pared  potatoes  to  stand  in  cold  water,  as 
this  detracts  from  the  food  value.  When  the  potatoes 


50  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

are  soft,  mash  fine.  A  wooden  masher  is  best  for  this, 
and  a  wire  one  is  best  for  stirring.  Measure  the  quantity 
of  potatoes  by  the  eye,  and  for  each  pint  add  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  a  little  pepper,  hot  milk  to  moisten,  and 
butter  enough  to  give  a  good  flavor,  then  stir  and  beat 
with  wire  masher  until  light  and  creamy  white.  Use 
cream  instead  of  milk  and  butter  if  you  have  it. 

Bleed  Potatoes. 

After  the  potatoes  are  mashed,  seasoned,  and  beaten, 
press  through  a  potato  ricer  into  the  serving  dish. 

Creamed  Potatoes. 

Cut  cold  boiled  potatoes  into  thin  slices.  Put  them  in 
a  small  shallow  pan,  cover  with  sweet  milk  and  cook  until 
the  potatoes  have  absorbed  all  of  the  milk.  To  one  pint 
of  potatoes  add  one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt  and  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  and 
a  little  chopped  parsley.  Put  the  salt  into  the  milk  be- 
fore pouring  over  the  potatoes. 

To  Cook  Carrots. 

When  carrots  are  to  be  cooked,  have  on  the  range, 
boiling  in  the  kettle,  such  an  amount  of  slightly  salted 
water  as  in  your  opinion  will  allow  the  carrots  to  barely 
cook  until  tender  without  burning.  The  exact  quantity 
of  water  cannot  be  given,  as  it  evaporates  more  rapidly 
some  days  than  others.  Put  the  carrots  in  whole,  or  as 
nearly  so  as  the  kettle  will  permit.  Keep  them  boiling 
rapidly  until  tender.  Remove  the  carrots  from  the  ket- 
tle, and  with  a  sharp  knife  divide  each  through  the 
centre.  For  each  half  pint  of  liquid  in  the  kettle,  meas- 
ure out  a  level  tablespoonful  of  flour,  and  the  same  of 
butter.  Stir  these  together  in  a  cup  until  thoroughly 
mixed,  then  put  into  the  boiling  liquid  in  a  lump,  and 
stir  until  the  flour  is  cooked,  and  the  liquid  smooth  and 
thickened  a  little.  Then  season  to  taste  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  add  a  sufficient  amount  of  vinegar  to  make 


VEGETABLES.  51 

it  slightly  acid.  Return  carrots  to  the  kettle,  let  boil  and 
serve.  Better  steam  carrots  than  boil  them  when  possi- 
ble. 

Carrots  in  White  Sauce. 

Put  into  a  saucepan  one  level  tablespoonful  of  flour, 
and  the  same  of  butter.  Let  butter  melt,  and  stir  the  two 
together,  but  do  not  brown.  Then  add  one  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  and  let  boil  a  few  minutes.  After  it  actually  boils, 
season  with  salt  and  pepper,  add  one  heaping  teaspoonful 
of  parsley,  stir  up,  pour  over  the  carrots,  and  serve. 

Sauces  for  Carrots. 

Sauce  No.  I :  Measure  one  level  tablespoonful  of  flour 
and  one  of  butter  for  each  cup  of  milk  or  carrot  broth 
used.  Stir  these  together  in  a  cup  until  perfectly  mixed, 
then  put  on  the  end  of  a  wooden  spoon,  and  put  into  the 
boiling  liquid,  and  stir  until  well  cooked  and  smooth. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper,  pour  over  the  carrots  and 
serve. 

Sauce  No.  2 :  If  there  is  not  liquid  enough  from  the 
carrots  to  make  the  sauce,  put  in  enough  rich  milk  to 
make  the  required  amount,  thicken  in  the  same  manner  as 
before,  season,  and  serve. 

Sauce  No.  3 :  Put  in  enough  beef  broth  to  make  the 
required  amount  of  liquid,  thicken  in  the  same  way,  put 
one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar  to  each  cup  of  liquid,  season, 
and  serve.  If  the  vinegar  is  very  sharp,  use  less. 

Prof.  Harry  Snyder  gives  the  following  conclusions 
from  his  experiments  with  carrots : 

"These  trials  suggest  that,  in  order  to  retain  the  great- 
est amount  of  nutrients  in  the  cooking  of  carrots,  ( I ) 
the  pieces  should  be  large,  rather  than  small:  (2)  the 
boiling  should  be  rapid,  in  order  to  give  less  time  for  the 
solvent  action  of  the  water  to  act  upon  the  food  ingre- 
dients; (3)  as  little  water  as  possible  should  be  used; 
and  (4)  if  the  matter  extracted  be  used  as  food  along 


52  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

with  the  carrots,  instead  of  being  thrown  away,  the  loss 
of  twenty  to  thirty  per  cent.,  or  even  more,  of  the  total 
food  value  may  be  "prevented." 

To  Cook  Asparagus. 

Break  off  the  woody  ends,  wash  and  tie  the  asparagus 
in  bunches  of  suitable  size,  cook  in  a  small  amount  of 
salted  boiling  water,  and  season  as  peas,  or  serve  with 
Hollandaise  Sauce.  May  steam  instead  of  boiling  it. 

To  Cook  Cabbage. 

Cabbage  may  be  cooked  in  very  little  water,  and  to 
most  persons  is  even  more  palatable  than  when  cooked 
in  a  large  quantity  of  water.  To  cook  cabbage  in  this 
way,  cut  into  moderately  small  pieces,  and  put  to  cook 
in  a  closely  covered  vessel  containing  just  boiling  water 
enough  to  prevent  burning.  When  boiling  rapidly,  draw 
to  a  cooler  portion  of  the  range,  and  let  cook  slowly 
until  tender.  Season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  and 
serve.  Cabbage  will  be  cooked  by  steaming  in  about  the 
same  length  of  time  as  by  boiling. 

Boiled  Cabbage. 

Trim  off  the  outside  leaves,  cut  each  head  into  eighths, 
and  put  into  the  kettle  with  a  small  amount  of  boiling 
salted  water.  Cook  until  tender,  keeping  just  water 
enough  to  prevent  burning.  When  tender,  remove  to  the 
back  of  the  range  to  keep  warm,  until  ready  to  serve,  then 
prepare  White  Sauce  No.  I  and  pour  over  it. 

Hot  Slaw  No.  1. 

Cut  the  cabbage  fine,  cook  in  very  little  water  until 
tender,  and  when  ready  to  serve  add  to  one  egg 
beaten  very  light  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one-half 
cup  of  hot  vinegar,  and  lastly  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cream. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper,  pour  over  the  cabbage,  stir, 
and  serve  at  once. 


VEGETABLES.  53 

Hot  Slaw  No.  2. 

Cook  cabbage  same  as  in  No.  I,  season  with  salt,  pep- 
per and  butter  and  add  enough  vinegar  to  make  pleas- 
antly acid. 

The  following  is  from  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp. 
Stations,  Bulletin  No.  43 : 

"The  kind  of  water  used  seems  to  have  more  effect  on 
the  loss  of  nutrients  in  cooking  cabbage  than  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water  at  which  the  cooking  is  started. 
In  any  case  the  loss  is  large.  In  one  hundred  pounds 
of  uncooked  cabbage,  there  are  but  seven  and  one-half 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  and  of  this  dry  matter  from  two 
and  one-fourth  to  three  pounds  are  lost  in  the  process 
of  cooking."  Cabbage  loses  much  in  cooking,  because, 
being  leaves,  the  water  has  access  to  a  large  surface. 
There  seems  no  way  to  avoid  great  loss  in  food  value, 
except  to  use  little  water  in  cooking,  and  cook  the  water 
out,  or  make  a  sauce  of  it. 

Creamed  Cabbage. 

Cut  the  cabbage  into  medium  fine  pieces  and  steam  or 
cook  in  little  water  until  tender,  then  pour  over  it  a  sea- 
soned white  sauce. 

White  Sauce  No.  1. 

Put  into  a  saucepan  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  butter 
and  the  same  of  flour.  Heat  until  the  butter  melts,  and 
mix  thoroughly  together,  but  do  not  allow  it  to  brown. 
Pour  into  this,  all  at  once,  one  cup  of  milk.  Let  cook 
until  it  thickens,  and  ceases  to  taste  of  raw  flour,  season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  pour  over  the  cabbage,  and  serve. 

Some  find  cabbage  more  palatable  when  as  much  water 
as  possible  is  removed  before  pouring  the  sauce  over  it. 
Cabbage  may  be  served  with  Hollandaise  Sauce. 

Hollandaise  Sauce  No.  1. 

Pour  one  cup  of  White  Sauce  No.  i,  boiling  hot,  over 
a  beaten  egg,  pouring  slowly,  and  beating  rapidly.  Add 


54  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar  or  lemon  juice.  Put  over 
the  fire  and  heat  until  the  egg  cooks  a  little,  but  do  not 
allow  it  to  curdle.  Season  and  serve. 

Hollandaise  Sauce  No.  2. 

Cook  together,  until  well  mixed,  one  tablespoonful 
each  of  butter  and  flour.  Add  one  cup  of  thin  cream, 
and  bring  to  the  boiling  point.  While  boiling,  stir  in  the 
well-beaten  yolks  of  three  eggs,  in  which  has  been  put 
one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar  or  lemon  juice.  Add  egg 
slowly,  and  continue  cooking,  after  egg  is  in,  about  one 
minute.  Remove  from  fire,  add  seasoning,  also  one 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  and  the  egg  whites,  beaten  stiff. 

To  Cook  Beets. 

Scrub  the  beets  well,  but  be  careful  that  the  skin  is 
unbroken  and  the  top  left  on,  because  they  will  lose  their 
beautiful  color,  as  well  as  have  less  food  value,  if  broken. 
Cook  in  boiling  water  until  tender,  put  into  cold  water 
and  rub  off  the  skin.  Cut  in  slices  and  serve  hot.  Sea- 
son with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  or  pickle  and  serve  cold. 

To  Cook  Parsnips. 

Prepare  and  cook  in  the  same  manner  as  carrots,  and 
serve  with  a  sauce  made  of  the  water  in  which  they  are 
cooked.  Or,  when  tender,  pour  into  a  dripping  pan, 
and  set  in  the  oven.  When  the  water  has  evaporated, 
brush  the  parsnips  over  with  butter,  and  let  brown.  Or 
they  may  be  cooked  dry,  and  mashed,  as  potatoes,  and 
seasoned  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter. 

To  Cook  Celery. 

Scrub  with  a  vegetable  brush  to  remove  all  dirt  from 
the  creases.  Cut  in  half-inch  lengths,  and  cook  in  a  little 
boiling  salted  water,  or  steam.  When  tender,  serve  with 
White  Sauce  No.  i. 


VEGETABLES.  55 

To  Cook  Onions. 

Peel  the  onions  and  put  to  cook  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water  (boiling  and  salted)  until  tender,  then  serve  with 
White  Sauce  No.  I. 

Smothered  Onions. 

Peel  and  put  into  a  covered  baking  dish,  and  bake 
until  tender;  then  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  add 
one  tablespoonful  of  cream  to  each  onion.  Let  cook 
fifteen  minutes  longer,  and  serve.  Or,  put  the  onions 
to  cook  in  a  buttered  baking  dish,  season  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  baste  occasionally  with  butter  while  they 
cook.  When  tender,  remove  the  cover,  allow  the  onions 
to  brown,  and  serve. 

Onions  Cooked  with  Milk. 

Boil  in  plenty  of  salted  water  until  about  half  done, 
then  drain  the  water  off,  and  cover  with  milk,  cook  until 
done,  and  season  with  salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

To  Cook  Peas. 

Shell  the  peas,  wash  the  pods,  and  put  pods  to  cook 
in  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  to  cook  the  peas.  When 
the  pods  are  soft,  skim  them  out  and  put  the  peas  to  cook. 
Keep  just  water  enough  to  prevent  burning,  and  when 
done  season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  sweet  cream. 

To  Cook  String  Beans. 

Break  off  both  ends  of  the  pod,  and  break  what  is  left 
into  two  or  three  parts.  Put  to  cook  in  sufficient  boil- 
ing water  to  keep  them  cooking  three  or  four  hours. 
Put  a  piece  of  salt  pork  in  the  bottom  of  the  kettle.  Sea- 
son, when  done,  with  salt  and  pepper.  Let  the  water 
practically  all  cook  out.  A  little  cream  may  be  added, 
or  they  may  be  served  with  a  white  sauce. 


56  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  Cook  Tomatoes. 

Lay  ripe  tomatoes  in  a  pan,  stem  side  up,  and  cover 
with  boiling  water,  let  stand  an  instant,  drain  off  the 
hot  water,  and  put  cold  water  on  them.  Remove  the 
skins,  take  out  the  cores,  cut  the  tomatoes  in  pieces,  and 
put  to  cook  in  a  granite  ware  or  porcelain  kettle,  and 
cook  until  well  done.  Season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  but- 
ter, and  add  bread  or  cracker  crumbs. 

Or  make  White  Sauce  No.  I,  and  mix  with  the  tomato 
by  first  putting  a  little  of  the  tomato  into  the  sauce,  then 
pouring  this  into  the  kettle  of  tomatoes;  stir  well  to- 
gether and  serve. 

To  Cook  Turnips. 

Choose  turnips  of  medium  size,  pare,  cut  in  halves,  and. 
cook  until  tender  in  a  small  amount  of  boiling  salted 
water.  Allow  the  water  to  evaporate,  mash  the  turnips, 
and  add  salt,  pepper,  butter,  and  a  very  little  sugar.,  Or 
cut  into  small  cubes  before  cooking,  boil  in  mutton  broth, 
and  serve  with  boiled  mutton. 

To  Cook  Spinach. 

Look  the  spinach  over,  and  remove  all  dead  leaves  and 
roots.  Set  a  colander  in  a  pan  of  water,  put  the  spinach 
in  it,  and  in  this  way  wash  it  through  several  waters  to 
remove  all  particles  of  sand  or  dirt.  Put  in  a  kettle 
on  a  cool  part  of  the  stove  with  no  more  water  than 
clings  to  it.  Let  cook  until  tender,  season  with  salt, 
pepper,  and  butter,  and  serve.  Boiled  eggs,  sliced,  may 
be  served  with  it. 

To  Cook  Hubbard  Squash. 

The  hard  shell  should  be  broken  in  pieces,  and  the 
seeds  scraped  out.  First  wash  the  outside  of  the  squash 
and  wipe  before  breaking.  Steam  the  pieces  until 
done,  then  take  out  the  inside  with  a  spoon,  mash,  and 
season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  Or  break  into 


VEGETABLES.  57 

pieces  suitable  for  serving,  and  bake  the  squash  in  the 
oven,  sprinkling  salt  and  pepper  over  it  when  put  to 
cook,  and  serve  in  the  shell. 

Summer  Squash. 

Use  while  very  young  and  tender.  Wash  clean,  cut 
in  slices,  stew  in  very  little  water,  and  mash  and  season 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  Many  saute  same  as  egg 
plant. 

Green  Corn- 
Remove  husks  and  silks,  and  steam  the  corn,  or  cook 
in  just  enough  boiling  water  to  keep  from  burning,  and 
serve  on  the  ear.  Corn  may  be  cooked  in  the  husk  by 
leaving  the  fine  inner  covering,  but  there  is  no  perceptible 
difference  in  the  quality. 

To  Stew  Green  Corn. 

Remove  husks  and  silks,  and  score  each  row  of  grains 
down  the  center  with  a  sharp  knife.  Cut  off  a  thin  slice 
from  the  top  of  the  grains,  and  with  a  /-kitchen  knife 
scrape  out  the  contents.  Cook  in  a  small  quantity  of 
salted  water,  letting  cook  gently,  keeping  covered,  and 
stirring  occasionally.  When  done,  season  with  salt,  pep- 
per, and  butter.  Cream  is  better  than  butter  if  you 
have  it. 

Or,  the  corn  may  be  partly  cooked  on  the  cob,  cut  off, 
seasoned  with  salt,  pepper,  cream,  and  a  very  little  butter 
heated  to  the  boiling  point,  and  served. 

To  Steam  Rice. 

Put  over  the  fire  in  a  double  boiler  three  cups  of  milk 
or  water,  or  of  the  two  mixed.  Put  into  it  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt.  Look  over  one  cup  of  rice,  wash,  put 
into  the  boiling  liquid  and  cook,  covered,  without  stir- 
ring, until  the  grains  of  rice  are  so  soft  as  to  be  easily 
crushed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  Take  the  cover 
off  and  let  the  rice  dry  a  little.  The  grains  will  be  dis- 
tinct, and  the  rice  palatable. 


58  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  Cook  Rice  in  Water. 

Put  in  a  saucepan  over  the  fire  ten  cups  of  water,  add- 
ing a  tablespoonful  of  salt.  When  the  liquid  boils,  put 
a  cup  of  rice  in.  Let  boil  until  soft,  as  before.  Keep  the 
quantity  of  water  the  same  by  adding  boiling  water  as 
it  evaporates.  Drain  in  a  puree  sieve,  and  dry  it  off  on 
the  range  shelf.  Rice  cooked  in  this  way  is  very  white, 
fluffy,  and  beautiful,  but  less  nutritious  and  palatable 
than  when  cooked  the  other  way. 

Stuffed  Tomatoes. 

Wash  and  wipe  medium-sized,  firm,  ripe  tomatoes.  Cut 
off  a  slice  from  the  stem  end,  and  with  a  spoon  take  out 
some  of  the  seeds,  but  not  the  core.  Fill  the  cavities 
with  bread  crumbs  seasoned  with  butter,  pepper,  and 
salt.  Replace  the  slice  on  the  top,  place  in  a  pan,  and 
bake  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Serve  hot. 

Escalloped  Tomatoes. 

Select  perfect,  ripe  tomatoes.  Put  in  a  pan,  pour  on 
enough  boiling  water  to  cover  them,  and  let  stand 
one  minute.  Pour  off  the  hot  water,  cover  with  cold 
water,  and  remove  the  skins.  Butter  a  baking  dish  on 
the  bottom  and  sides.  Cover  the  bottom  of  the  dish  with 
breadcrumbs  made  from  crusts  dried  and  rolled  or  ground. 
Slice  the  tomatoes  one-half  an  inch  thick,  and  lay  over 
the  crumbs.  Cover  the  tomatoes  with  crumbs,  sprinkle 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  drop  on  bits  of  butter.  Add 
another  layer  of  tomatoes,  another  of  bread  crumbs,  butter 
and  seasoning;  continue  in  this  manner  until  the  dish 
is  filled  to  within  two  inches  of  the  top.  Have  bread 
crumbs  on  the  top.  Place  in  the  oven  and  bake  twenty 
or  twenty-five  minutes.  Serve  in  the  dish  in  which  they 
are  baked. 

Sauted  Tomatoes. 

Select  firm  tomatoes,  not  over  ripe,  wash  and  wipe. 
Cut  a  medium-sized  tomato  into  four  slices,  dredge  with 


VEGETABLES.  59 

flour,  saute  in  a  hot  spider  containing  one  tablesponful 
of  butter.  Brown  on  one  side,  turn,  and  brown  on  the 
other.  Remove  to  a  warm  platter,  and  sprinkle  with  salt 
and  pepper.  Into  the  spider  put  one-fourth  cup  of  cream, 
let  boil  up,  turn  over  the  tomatoes,  and  serve.  The  slices 
of  tomato  may  be  dipped  in  beaten  egg  and  dusted  with 
very  fine  bread  crumbs,  before  sauteing. 

Escalloped  Macaroni  with  Tomatoes. 

Look  the  macaroni  over  carefully,  and  see  that  it  is 
free  from  insects.  Break  into  inch  or  two-inch  lengths, 
and  put  to  cook  in  plenty  of  salted  boiling  water.  Cook 
rapidly  until  done.  When  done,  it  is  clear  and  soft. 
Turn  into  a  colander  and  allow  it  to  drain.  Cover  the 
bottom  of  a  baking  dish  with  bread  crumbs,  put  in  about 
one  inch  of  macaroni,  over  this  lay  sliced  tomatoes,  and 
sprinkle  lightly  with  seasoned  bread  crumbs.  Then  add 
another  layer  of  the  macaroni,  another  of  tomatoes,  and 
a  dust  of  crumbs.  Continue  in  this  manner  until  the  pan 
is  as  full  as  desired,  having  tomatoes  on  top.  Cover  with 
a  layer  of  the  seasoned  crumbs  one-half  inch  thick.  Bake 
until  the  crumbs  are  a  nice  brown, — twenty  or  twenty- 
five  minutes, — and  serve  in  the  dish  in  which  it  is  baked. 

To  Cook  Salsify  or  Vegetable  Oysters. 

Wash  the  roots  clean,  and  remove  rootlets.  Scrape  the 
thin  skin  off,  and  keep  the  roots  in  vinegar  water,  as  they 
discolor  very  readily.  Cut  into  bits,  and  cook  one  and 
one-half  hours  in  boiling  salted  water.  Keep  just  enough 
water  to  prevent  burning.  Season  same  as  peas.  Salt, 
pepper,  and  cream  give  best  results,  but  it  is  good  served 
with  White  Sauce  No.  I. 

Corn  Oysters. 

Select  roasting-ear  corn,  and  prepare  for  cooking. 
Score  each  row  of  grains,  then  with  a  sharp  knife  cut  off 
the  top  of  each  row  about  one-third  down,  and  with  a 
kitchen  knife  scrape  out  the  pulp.  With  each  cup  of 


60  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

corn  mix  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  one-half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  cream.  Lastly, 
fold  in  one  egg  white,  beaten  very  light.  Drop  one  ta- 
blespoonful at  a  time  on  a  greased  griddle,  and  bake  same 
as  griddle  cakes.  These  are  fine  if  one-third  as  much 
sweet-bread  as  corn  is  used.  To  make  corn  oysters  from 
left-over  corn,  grate  the  roasting  ears  which  have  been 
left  from  dinner,  then  proceed  as  with  fresh  corn. 

To  Cook  Egg  Plant. 

Pare  the  egg  plant  and  cut  into  slices  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  thick,  and  sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper.  Dip  the 
slices  in  beaten  egg,  then  in  fine  bread  crumbs,  and 
saute  in  a  spider  with  plenty  of  bacon  fat  or  clarified  but- 
ter. Brown  on  both  sides.  Or  the  slices  may  be  simply 
dusted  with  flour.  If,  when  the  slices  are  brown,  they 
do  not  seem  perfectly  cooked,  draw  the  spider  to  a  cooler 
part  of  the  stove  and  finish  cooking. 

Egg  plant  is  also  very  nice  dipped  in  a  fritter  batter 
and  sauted. 

Baked  Egg  Plant. 

Prepare  the  egg  plant  as  for  sauteing,  cook  in  salted 
water  for  ten  minutes,  and  drain.  In  a  greased  baking 
dish  put  first  a  layer  of  seasoned  bread  crumbs,  then  a 
layer  of  the  egg  plant,  more  crumbs  and  bits  of  butter, 
more  egg  plant,  and  so  continue  until  as  much  is  used  as 
desired,  having  crumbs  on  the  top.  Bake  twenty  minutes 
in  a  moderate  oven. 

Egg-Plant  Oysters. 

Prepare  and  cook  the  plant  as  for  baking.  When  soft, 
drain  and  mash  through  a  sieve.  To  one-half  pint  of  egg 
plant  use  one  egg,  well  beaten,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
milk,  one-fourth  cup  of  flour,  and  one-half  as  much  bread 
or  cracker  crumbs  as  flour.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper 
and  saute  or  bake  as  griddle  cakes. 


VEGETABLES.  61 

DRIED  VEGETABLES. 

All  dried  vegetables  should  be  looked  over,  washed, 
and  put  to  soak  in  cold  water,  and  left  until  they  absorb 
all  the  water  they  will,  or  at  least  for  several  hours,  then 
cooked  in  the  water  in  which  soaked.  Some  prefer  to 
throw  away  the  water  in  which  dried  vegetables  are 
soaked,  and  thus  have  a  milder  flavor.  Such  treatment 
takes  away  a  portion  of  the  food  value,  and  whether  it  is 
advisable  to  do  so  each  person  must  decide  for  herself. 

Dessicated  beans  or  shredded  string  beans  are  some- 
times included  in  army  supplies. 

Some  vegetables,  as  string  beans,  cucumbers,  and  cab- 
bage, may  be  preserved  in  salt  or  in  vinegar  for  winter  use. 


Bean  Pot  and  Brown   Bread   Tins. 

String  beans  preserved  in  salt  will  keep  for  months,  but 
they  undergo  a  change  similar  to  that  produced  in  cab- 
bage when  sauerkraut  is  made.  They  are  much  used  by 
some  people,  and  are  no  doubt  a  good  thing,  as  they  add 
one  more  vegetable  to  the  winter  diet. 

White  Beans  in  Cream. 

Look  over  the  desired  quantity  of  dry  beans,  wash,  and 


62  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

put  to  soak  in  cold  water  to  cover  them.  Let  stand  over 
night,  or  for  several  hours,  until  they  have  absorbed  all 
the  water  they  will  take;  then  put  to  cook,  using  the 
water  in  which  they  have  soaked,  and  adding  enough 
boiling  water  to  cover.  For  each  pint  of  beans  used  add 
half  a  tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  one  level  tablespoonful 
of  sugar.  Set  the  bean  jar  in  the  oven  and  cover.  Let 
the  beans  cook  until  soft,  but  not  dark.  When  done,  make 
a  white  sauce  by  using  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  and 
one  of  flour  to  each  cup  of  milk  (as  directed  for  making 
White, Sauce  No.  i).  Wlien  the  sauce  is  smooth,  season 
to  taste,  and  pour  over  the  beans. 

Stewed  Beans. 

Proceed  in  same  way  as  for  white  beans  in  cream,  ex- 
cept cook  a  piece  of  salt  pork  with  the  beans.  Let  water 
nearly  all  cook  out,  season,  and  serve. 

.Baked  Beans, 

Beans  one  pint.  Soak  over  night  in  plenty  of  cold 
water,  and  put  to  cook  in  cold  water  enough  to  cover  the 
beans.  Add  one-half  tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  one-fourth 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  soda.  When  boiling,  drain  off  the  wa- 
ter, and  in  the  bottom  of  the  bean  jar  put  one-fourth  of 
a  pound  of  salt  pork,  scored,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of 
sugar,  and  one^half  scant  tablespoonful  of  salt.  Put  beans 
into  the  jar,  cover  them  with  hot  water,  cook  in  a  slow 
oven  for  ten,  twelve,  or  fifteen  hours. 

Prepare  and  bake  lentils  same  as  beans. 

Lentil  Pudding. 

Prepare  the  lentils,  and  soak  as  before,  then  slowly 
steam  them  until  done.  Cook  a  piece  of  salt  pork  with 
them  for  seasoning,  or  season  with  butter. 


Cereal  Grains. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PREPARED   CEREALS. 

Cereal  foods  are  made  of  the  farinaceous  (meaning- 
floury)  seeds  of  plants  belonging  to  the  grass  family, 
and  in  some  instances,  doubtless,  in  part,  of  the  seeds  of 
such  leguminous  plants  as  peas  and  beans.  These  valu- 
able grain-bearing  plants  were,  probably,  among  the  first 
to  furnish  food  to  the  human  race. 

Pliny  speaks  of  wheat,  in  writing  of  the  ancient  Roman 
people.  China  has  history  of  the  use  of  cereal  grains  as 
early  as  2,700  years  before  the  Christian  era.  And  there 
is  evidence  that  the  lake  dwellers  of  prehistoric  Switzer- 
land used  seeds  of  millet  as  food.  In  America  the  na- 
tives were  using  corn  when  white  men  came  to  the  west- 
ern world,  and  the  evidence  seems  complete  that  the  an- 
cient Cliff  Dwellers  of, the  Mexican  and  the  southern  part 
of  America  used  corn  as  food.  The  American  Indians 
residing  in  the  north  used  large  quantities  of  wild  rice  or 
Indian  rice  for  food.  All  the  cereal  grains  now  largely 
used,  excepting  maize,  have  been  in  use  in  the  Eastern 
hemisphere  since  ancient  times. 

While  the  culture  of  the  cereal  grains  had  made  some 
progress  throughout  the  preceding  centuries,  the  greatest 
advance  along  this  line  has  come  within  the  past  century. 
The  machinery  for  cultivating  and  transporting  cereal 
grains,  and  products  made  from  them,  has  made  most 
wonderful  strides  during  the  lives  of  the  present  genera- 
tion. Processes  in  the  manufacture  of  cereal  foods  from 
cereal  grains  form  one  of  the  marvels  of  modern  prog- 
ress. And  the  rate  of  this  progress  seems  to  be  acceler- 
ated as  each  year's  experience  is  added  to  the  last. 


PREPARED  CEREALS.  65 

It  is  not  long  since  our  ancestors  had  only  the  crudest 
means  of  grinding  grains,  and  no  thought  occurred  to 
them  of  pearling  and  mixing,  and  partially  cooking  and 
flavoring,  and  otherwise  preparing  these  foods  into  the 
many  forms  now  found  on  our  markets. 

Our  grandmothers  were  pleased  with  the  simple 
straight  flour  from  which  the  coarsest  bran  had  been  re- 
moved. They  took  great  comfort  in  the  bolted  cornmeal 
and  the  oatmeal  which  was  used  only  occasionally  by 
others  than  the  Scotch.  These  foods,  together  with  rice 
and  hominy,  made  up  the  list  of  cereal  preparations.  Now 
we  have  our  wheat  flour  graded  so  that  we  have  patent 
flour  for  bread,  pastry  flour  for  pastry  uses,  and  various 
brands  for  special  purposes.  Instead  of  the  uneven  sam- 
ple of  flour  furnished  to  the  farmer  with  toll  retained  by 
the  old  time  burr  mill  in  return  for  his  grist  of  wheat, 
we  now  have  the  uniform  patent  flour  made  every  day 
the  same  by  the  modern  roller  mill  with  its  wonderful 
machinery.  We  have  also  not  only  cornmeal  which  is 
better  bolted  and  more  uniformly  ground,  and  oatmeal  of 
finer  quality,  but  we  have  dozens  of  other  more  or  less 
popular  meals  and  flours,  and  cracked  and  polished 
grains,  which  we  have  come  to  know  as  "cereals." 

America's  rich  soil,  energetic  people,  favorable  climate, 
and  her  mechanical  and  commercial  genius  have  com- 
bined in  the  production  of  large  amounts  of  cereal  foods. 
The  best  varieties  of  these  crops  have  been  gleaned  from 
the  whole  world,  and  in  many  instances  they  have  been 
improved  upon.  Here,  as  in  manufacturing,  progress 
seems  to  be  making  rapid  strides,  and  bids  fair  to  hold  a 
permanent  place.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  farmers  can  so 
cheaply  produce  at  home  a  variety  of  foods,  they  have  not 
felt  the  need  of  rapidly  taking  up  the  use  of  even  the 
better  forms  of  manufactured  cereal  foods  put  upon  the 
markets  during  the  last  one  or  two  decades.  Doubtless 
their  conservatism  in  this,  as  in  many  other  things,  has 

3 


66  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

kept  them  from  enjoying  advantages  which  are  within 
their  easy  reach.  Most  cereal  foods  are  economical  in 
that  for  a  given  amount  of  money  a  large  amount  of  food 
material  is  purchased.  They  are  healthful  in  that  they 
lessen  the  tendency  to  eating  too  much  meat,  and  they 
furnish  all  the  elements  needed  to  nourish  the  body.  They 
have  bulk  enough  to  give  the  digestive  organs  their  need- 
ed amount  of  muscular  exercise,  yet  they  rarely  cause  in- 
digestion. 

Cereal  foods  tend  to  good  morals,  since,  when  they 
form  a  goodly  portion  of  the  daily  food,  there  is  no  ex- 
cessive stimulant  to  the  body,  nerves,  or  mind.  They  are 
sufficiently  bulky  so  that  there  is  little  tendency  to  overeat- 
ing, and  thus  overloading  the  system  with  an  excess  of 
flesh  formers,  heat  formers,  or  ash  which  must  be  car- 
ried out,  requiring  excessive  labor  on  the  part  of  the  ex- 
cretory organs.  These  foods  are  very  appetizing,  and 
since  many  of  them  are  especially  relished  when  eaten 
with  cream,  which  is  nowhere  so  abundant  and  inexpen- 
sive as  on  the  farm,  no  class  of  people  should  appreciate 
them  more  than  farmers. 

Manufacturers  rival  each  other  in  embellishing  wrap- 
pers and  inventing  novel  names  for  their  wares.  Extrav- 
agant claims  are  made  for  these  foods,  and  much  is  said 
to  induce  the  public  to  believe  that,  by  some  peculiar 
method  of  manufacture,  an  article  far  superior  to  simple, 
plain  oatmeal  or  rolled  wheat  has  been  produced.  The 
fact  is  that  there  is,  in  most  cases,  more  variation  in  price 
than  in  food  value,  and  the  relation  between  quality  and 
cost  is  sometimes  difficult  to  discover.  The  package  goods 
have  one  merit,  and  that  is,  the  manufacturer  is  made 
directly  responsible  to  the  consumer.  The  oatmeal  sold 
in  bulk  is  practically  uniform  in  composition,  and,  unless 
injured  by  long  keeping  and  exposure,  there  is  little,  if 
any,  discoverable  difference  in  quality  and  flavor.  The 
package  cereals  usually  make  greater  claims  for  quick 


PREPARED  CEREALS.  67 

cooking  than  can  be  well  substantiated.  Granting  that, 
in  such  cereals,  a  portion  of  the  starch  grains  have  been 
crushed  and  partly  converted  into  more  soluble  forms  by 
means  of  heat,  pressure,  and  moisture,  thus  lessening  the 
time  required  for  cooking,  yet  experience  proves  that 
they  usually  have  a  better  flavor  when  cooked  half  an 
hour  than  when  removed  from  the  fire  after  ten  minutes' 
cooking,  as  the  packages  sometimes  direct.  The  carbo- 
hydrates of  cereals  are  mostly  in  the  form  of  small,  hard, 
starch  grains  which  are  not  easily  attacked  by  the  digest- 
ive fluids.  Experiments  made  in  feeding  cooked  cereals 
to  domestic  animals  seem  to  verify  the  statement  that  lit- 
tle cooking  renders  them  less  digestible  than  when  eaten 
raw,  but  a  long,  slow,  thorough  cooking  brings  about 
good  results. 

Cellulose  is  the  woody  portion  of  plants.  In  such  foods 
as  spinach,  the  cellulose  is  young,  tender,  and  digestible. 
In  grains,  the  cellulose  is  found  in  its  mature  state,  and 
can  hardly  be  classed  as  a  food  stuff  for  man,  yet  it  plays 
an  important  part  in  giving  bulk  to  the  food,  and  aids  in 
preventing  the  tendency  to  too  concentrated  food.  It  acts 
as  a  mechanical  stimulus  to  promote  the  peristalsis  of 
the  intestines.  Bunge,  in  his  Physiological  and  Patholog- 
ical Chemistry,  says:  "While  it  is  urged  that  the  rapid 
and  continual  movement  of  the  intestinal  contents  in  con- 
sequence of  the  irritating  action  of  the  woody  fibre  pre- 
vents the  complete  utilization  of  the  food,  at  the  same 
time,"  he  continues,  "it  appears  to  me  that  the  advantages 
of  food  containing  cellulose  far  outweigh  the  drawbacks." 

All  oily  matters  in  grains  are  termed  "fats."  These  are 
similar  in  composition  to  carbohydrates,  but  the  fats  are 
poorer  in  oxygen  and  richer  in  carbon  and  hydrogen; 
therefore  the  heat  equivalent  of  fats  is  much  greater, — 
that  is,  a  pound  of  fat  will  produce  more  animal  heat 
than  a  pound  of  starch  or  sugar.  Buckwheat  is  a  good  ex- 
ample of  a  heat-giving  cereal.  It  is  more  agreeable  when 


68  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

used  in  cold  weather,  and  by  those  who  exercise  freely. 
It  is  used  principally  in  the  form  of  griddle  cakes,  though 
it  is  sometimes  found  in  the  markets  in  the  form  of  a 
specially  prepared  cereal.  Cereals  contain  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  several  mineral  matters  which  are  necessary 
for  both  bone  and  flesh,  but  there  is  usually  no  deficiency 
of  most  of  these  in  our  diet.  Phosphorus  is  considered 
of  much  importance,  and  special  efforts  are  said  to  be 
made  to  secure  it  in  milling. 

One  authority  on  physiological  chemistry  says  that, 
with  the  exception  of  preparations  of  corn  and  oats,  all 
the  cereal  foods  lack  the  fat  necessary  to  a  normal  diet. 
The  proteids  and  carbohydrates  occur  in  the  proper  pro- 
portion in  them  all.  Since  human  beings  select  their  foods 
largely  on  account  of  flavor,  why  not  supply  the  fat  to 
the  foods  in  the  form  of  cream.  A  dish  of  breakfast  food 
which  is  eaten  under  protest  when  served  with  milk  will 
be  relished  when  cream  is  used.  It  is  not  extravagant, 
because  the  cereal  costs  only  a  few  cents  a  pound  and  the 
willingness  with  which  it  is  eaten  well  repays  the  cost  of 
the  cream,  which,  on  the  farm,  is  not  expensive.  To  com- 
pensate for  the  lack  of  cream  in  oatmeal  and  cornmeal 
mush,  a  garnish  of  fruit  can  sometimes  be  used.  Straw- 
berries, peaches,  raspberries,  and  bananas,  each  in  its  fresh 
state,  are  considered  best  for  this  purpose,  as  the  flavors 
are  sufficiently  pronounced  so  that  the  two  foods,  eaten 
together,  are  very  appetizing. 

The  manufacture  of  special  cereal  foods  is  taking  on  a 
wonderful  development.  These  foods  have  the  well-bal- 
anced composition  of  the  cereal  grains  from  which  they 
are  made.  The  staple  cereal  foods,  as  wheat  flour,  corn- 
meal,  and  oatmeal  are  the  sources  of  the  cheapest  food 
materials  we  have.  Their  large  use  not  only  does 
not  endanger  health,  but  also  prevents  our  over-eating 
of  the  too  rich  albuminous  foods  and  sweets.  Good 
bread  prevents  our  eating  the  less  wholesome  cakes.  Oat- 


PREPARED  CEREALS.  69 

meal  for  breakfast  aids  in  avoiding  the  too  free  use  of 
meats,  and  cornmeal  mush  as  a  part  of  the  evening  meal 
fills  our  stomachs  with  nourishing  yet  light  food,  and 
allows  us  to  have  sweet  dreams.  Especially  are  these 
cereal  foods  a  blessing  to  growing  children  and  to  adults 
during  periods  of  lessened  activity,  as  in  winter,  when 
less  muscular  exertion  makes  a  lighter  diet  well  nigh  im- 
perative. Flour,  oatmeal,  and  cornmeal  are  so  cheap  as 
compared  with  most  other  forms  of  food  that  farmers 
should  exercise  great  care  in  securing  that  of  good  qual- 
ity. It  is  likewise  important  that  these  foods  be  cooked 
in  the  most  perfect  manner.  Very  many  people  with  dis- 
eased digestion  are  constantly  distressed,  injured,  and 
made  far  less  able  to  be  happy,  to  perform  work  of  any 
kind,  or  to  be  useful  to  others,  by  eating  wheaten  bread 
which  is  improperly  made.  Bread  made  by  a  slow  pro- 
cess, with  low  temperature,  or  with  the  dough  now  warm, 
then  cold,  develops  within  itself  not  only  a  yeast  fer- 
mentation, but  other  ferments  as  well.  A  mere  trace 
of  an  acid  developed  by  injurious  fermentation,  an 
amount  barely  sufficient  for  the  taste  or  the  smell  to  de- 
tect, will  disturb  the  digestion  of  many  people  in  health 
as  well  as  those  having  weak  digestion.  The  most  im- 
portant matter  in  connection  with  oatmeal  is  to  have  it 
made  of  sweet  and  well-flavored  grain.  It  should  always 
be  fresh  and  well  cooked.  Under  such  circumstances,  it 
will  be  palatable,  and  may  be  used  often  and  is  always  rel- 
ished. Cornmeal  should  be  nicely  prepared,  and  should  be 
properly  made  into  mush,  that  it  may  be  enjoyed  for  sup- 
per; and  a.  remaining  portion  fried  for  breakfast  is  very 
acceptable.  The  fact  that  farmers  have  fine  milk  and 
cream  at  first  cost  is  a  most  favorable  circumstance  to 
their  using  large  quantities  of  cornmeal  and  oatmeal 
mush.  These  foods  are  often  more  delicious,  and  proba- 
bly more  healthful,  than  many  of  the  modern  compounds 
which  require  much  more  labor  in  their  preparation.  They 


70 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


are  also  very  inexpensive,  as  will  be  shown  further  on  in 
these  articles. 

In  order  to  have  good  health,  people  must  have  food 
that  supplies  the  quantities  of  nutrients  which  the  body 
requires.  Yet  this  is  not  all  that  is  necessary.  The  food 
must  be  such  that  the  person  can  digest  it,  else  it  does  him 
harm,  rather  than  good. 

Experiments  in  the  digestibility  of  foods  lead  to  the 
belief  that  fat  as  found  in  pork  is  difficult  of  digestion; 
and  when  taken  in  large  quantities,  a  considerable  portion 
of  it  fails  to  be  utilized  in  the  system,  and  thus  entails 
unnecessary  work  on  the  different  organs  to  remove  it, 
with  no  benefit  to  the  body. 

It  would  be  well,  then,  to  replace  a  part  of  the  meat 
with  some  food  which  will  furnish  the  necessary  ingredi- 
ents in  a  more  digestible  form.  The  cereals,  when  prop- 
erly cooked,  are  very  completely  digested  and  assimi- 
lated. 

The  quantity  of  protein  in  cornmeal  is  small  as  com- 
pared with  some  other  food  stuffs,  but  it  is  a  valuable 
nutrient  because  easily  digested.  The  fat  of  butter  and 
cream  is  more  digestible  than  that  of  bacon,  owing  in 
part,  probably,  to  the  more  delicate  structure  of  the  cell 


• 

I 
d 

1 

03 

1 

Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

S! 

Entire  wheat  flour  

5 
100 
19 
13 
1 
25 
1 
1 
2 
3 
2 
10 
9 
5 
4 
13 
11 
13 

12.1 
12.5 
11.6 
12.5 

lo.'s 

10.4 
10.4 
9.7 
11.9 
10.8 
14.3 
12.9 
11.9 
10.8 
7.2 
7.2 
12.4 
32.0 

1.2 

.5 
.5 

.4 
3.0 
1.6 
.9 
.2 
2.6 
1.3 
1.4 
.9 
.4 
1.4 
1.9 
1.9 
.4 
.1 

14.2 
11.3 
11.8 
10.4 
9.4 
11.7 
11.4 
12.3 
11.1 
10.5 
9.3 
6.1 
8.9 
8.2 
11.3 
15.6 
16.9 
7.8 
.9 

70.6 
74.6 
75.0 
75.6 
78.6 
72.9 
74.5 
75.0 
77.6 
72.8 
77.6 
77.2 
75.1 
78.9 
71.4 
68.0 
66.8 
79. 
56. 

1.9 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.6 
2.1 
1.4 
1.4 
2.2 
1.2 
1.0 
2.2 
.6 
5.2 
7.3 
7.2 
.  .4 
.1 

Roller  process  flour       

Spring  wheat  flour  

Winter  wheat  flour  
Cerealine 

Macaroni  and  vermicelli  

Rex  wheat. 

Wheatlet  

Wheat  Farina.                                                         

Barley  meal 

Barley,  pearled  
Buckwheat  flour 

Cornmeal,  bolted  
Corn,  hominy                        .    .  . 

Corn  pop  raw 

Oatmeal  

Rolled  oats                                                                ..   . 

Rice  

Bakers'  bread  

PREPARED  CEREALS.  71 

walls  in  which  the  fat  globules  are  inclosed,  or  the  ab- 
sence of  such  walls.  A  glance  at  the  preceding  table, 
compiled  by  Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater,  will  show  that  oat- 
meal has  rather  more  protein  than  wheat  flour. 

In  comparing  wheat  bread  with  wheat  flour,  we  find 
that  the  chief  difference  is  that  the  bread  has  a  larger 
proportion  of  water,  and  a  greater  amount  of  fat,  owing 
to  the  water  and  milk  used  in  its  preparation.  As  we  run 
down  the  scale,  we  find  that  the  cereals  prepared  from 
barley  rank  next  to  wheat  flour  in  the  amount  of  protein 
contained.  Cornmeal  contains  more  protein  than  buck- 
wheat flour,  and  rice  ranks  lowest  in  proteid  matter. 
There  are  many  cereals  prepared  from  oats,  but  coarse 
oatmeal,  fine  oatmeal,  and  rolled  oats  usually  give  a  sat- 
isfactory variety  in  this  cereal.  These  can  all  be  bought 
in  bulk  for  two  or  three  cents  per  pound.  They  are  all 
cooked  in  the  same  manner;  the  only  difference  in  the 
process  being  that  the  coarser  ones  require  a  longer  time 
and  a  greater  proportion  of  water. 

The  protein  in  cereals  is  in  the  form  of  gluten,  and  is 
very  hard  when  dry,  and  needs  long  cooking.  Starch,  in 
a  raw  or  half-cooked  state,  is  neither  very  palatable  nor 
digestible.  Each  starch  cell  is  surrounded  by  a  thin  wall 
of  cellulose,  and  this  must  be  softened  by  the  heat  and 
moisture,  so  that  the  starch  cells  may  absorb  water,  dis- 
tend, and  become  soft  and  digestible.  Coarse  oatmeal  re- 
quires a  very  long,  slow  cooking  to  thoroughly  prepare 
it  for  the  action  of  the  digestive  fluids.  It  is  well  to  have 
this  for  breakfast  on  the  morning  following  baking  or 
ironing  day,  as  the  fire  necessary  for  the  extra  work  can 
be  utilized  in  partially  cooking  the  cereal  for  the  next 
morning's  breakfast. 

Among  "cereals"  prepared  from  corn,  the  good  old 
hominy,  a  dish  borrowed  from  the  Indians,  awakens 
pleasant  memories  in  the  minds  of  those  whose  youthful 
palates  were  tickled  by  this  delicious  and  wholesome  ar- 


72  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

tide  of  food.  The  coarse  hominy  of  early  days,  in  Amer- 
ica, was  made  by  soaking  the  grains  of  corn  in  weak  lye 
made  from  wood  ashes,  until  the  outside  covering  became 
loose.  The  grain  was  then  taken  from  the  liquid  and 
washed  in  two  or  three  clean  waters,  and  the  hulls  rubbed 
off  by  the  hands.  It  was  then  soaked  in  clear  water  to 
remove  all  trace  of  the  lye.  When  ready,  it  was  boiled 
in  slightly  salted  water  for  some  hours,  until  it  became 
perfectly  tender.  By  placing  it  out  in  the  pure  cold  air, 
and  allowing  it  to  freeze,  the  hominy  was  thought  to  be 
improved,  as  it  was  more  tender,  and  slightly  changed 
in  taste.  It  was  eaten  with  milk  or  sauted  in  butter  or 
meat  drippings.  This  method  of  preparing  it  was  very 
simple.  A  spider  containing  a  generous  supply  of  what- 
ever fat  was  to  be  used  for  cooking  the  hominy  was 
placed  upon  the  stove  and  allowed  to  become  hot.  Then 
the  hominy,  free  from  water,  was  put  in  and  stirred 
about  and  seasoned  to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper,  and, 
when  thoroughly  heated,  was  served  in  a  hot  dish. 

In  some  localities  of  the  far  west,  wheat  and  barley 
were  hulled  by  some  home-made  device,  and  used  as 
cereals.  Cornmeal  mush  with  cool  whole  milk  often 
makes  a  satisfying  supper  on  a  winter  evening,  and  such 
a  repast  usually  leaves  no  ill  effects. 

In  addition  to  the  whole-grained  hominy,  coarse  hom- 
iny, fine  hominy,  and  other  cereals  are  common  in  our 
markets.  These  can  be  purchased  in  retail  quantities  at 
two  to  four  cents  per  pound.  Coarse  hominy,  like  coarse 
oatmeal,  requires  a  very  long  time  for  cooking. 

To  Cook  Coarse  Hominy. 

Use  six  cups  of  boiling  liquid  to  each  cup  of  hominy. 
Salt  to  taste.  Cook  six  to  ten  hours,  either  over  a  slow 
fire,  or  in  a  double  boiler.  The  only  object  in  using 
the  double  boiler  is  that  it  is  easier  to  keep  the  food  con- 
stantly cooking,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  burning. 


PREPARED  CEREALS.  73 

To  Cook  Fine  Hominy. 

Use  four  cups  of  liquid  to  one  cup  of  hominy.  Cook 
from  three  to  six  hours.  Salt  to  taste. 

To  Cook  Cerealine  Flakes. 

This  is  one  of  the  specially  prepared  cereals  which  is 
partially  cooked  during  the  process  of  manufacture. 
The  directions  with  this  package  cereal  sometimes  read 
"Cook  one  minute,"  but  one  usually  finds  fifteen  min- 
utes cooking  to  be  more  satisfactory. 

To  Make  Cornmeal  Mush. 

Use  four  cups  of  water  to  one  cup  of  cornmeal. 
Have  three  cups  of  the  water  salted  to  taste,  and  boiling 
in  the  vessel  in  which  the  meal  is  to  be  cooked.  Wet  the 
cornmeal  in  one  cup  of  cold  water,  then  put  into  the 
boiling  water,  carefully  stirring  to  avoid  lumps,  and  cook 
half  an  hour  directly  over  the  fire.  Stir  often  enough 
to  prevent  burning,  or  set  the  close-covered  vessel  con- 
taining the  mush  in  a  kettle  of  hot  water,  also  covered, 
and  cook  two  hours.  If  the  mush  is  to  be  cooled  and 
fried,  use  half  a  measure  more  of  water  to  the  same 
amount  of  cornmeal,  as  the  mush  thickens  in  cooling, 
though  the  fried  mush  should  never  be  soft  enough  to 
break  when  cooked. 

Mush  from  Coarse  Oat  Meal. 

Measure  and  put  into  the  upper  part  of  the  double 
boiler,  or  into  a  tin  pail  having  a  tight-fitting  cover,  a 
sufficient  amount  of  water  to  make  the  quantity  of  mush 
desired,  using  the  same  measuring  dipper  or  cup  for 
both  the  water  and  the  oatmeal.  Set  aside  one-fifth  as 
much  oatmeal  as  you  have  hot  water  in  the  kettle.  When 
the  water  is  boiling,  salt  it  to  suit  the  taste,  and  sift  in 
the  oatmeal  with  the  hand.  Do  not  stir  the  oatmeal,  as 
this  renders  it  stringy  and  less  palatable,  but  lift  from 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  with  a  spoon  to  prevent  burn- 
ing. Let  cook  directly  over  the  fire  until  it  swells  and 


74  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

ceases  to  settle  to  the  bottom,  then  set  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  double  boiler,  or,  if  in  a  pail,  cover  the  pail  closely 
and  set  in  a  kettle  of  boiling  water;  cover  closely  and 
let  boil  from  six  to  ten  hours. 

Mush  from  Fine  Oatmeal. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  for  coarse  oatmeal, 
except  take  one-fourth  as  much  meal  as  water  and  cook 
three  to  six  hours. 

Mush  from  Rolled  Oats. 

Use  one  part  of  cereal  to  three  parts  of  boiling  water 
and  cook  one  and  one-half  to  three  hours. 

To  Cook  luce. 

Free  the  rice  from  all  objectionable  parts,  and  wash 
well  to  remove  any  loose  starch.  Put  a  cup  of  prepared 
rice  into  two  quarts  of  boiling  water,  and  cook  rapidly 
for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  or  until  the  grains  are 
tender,  drain  in  a  sieve  or  colander,  and  set  on  a  warm 
part  of  the  range  to  dry  off. 

A  more  economical  way  of  cooking  rice,  and  one  which 
is  equally  as  good  when  skillfully  done,  is  to  put  a  cup 
of  prepared  rice  into  three  cups  of  boiling  water,  slightly 
salted.  Let  boil  rapidly  until  the  grains  swell  some,  then 
put  into  the  double  kettle.  When  done,  set  on  back  of 
range  to  dry  off,  and  lift  from  bottom  with  a  fork. 

Vitos. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups 
of  water,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  three-fourths  cup  of 
Vitos.  Let  milk  and  water  boil,  then  stir  the  Vitos  into 
it,  and  let  cook  one-half  hour  in  double  boiler. 

Cracked  Wheat. 

One  cup  of  cracked  wheat,  one  quart  and  one  cup  of 
water  (five  cups),  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  Let 
the  water  boil,  then  stir  the  cereal  into  it,  and  cook  five 
or  six  hours  in  a  double  boiler. 


PREPARED  CEREALS. 


75 


ANALYSIS  OF  CEREALS.— COMPILED  BY  JENKINS  AND  WINSTON. 


CD 

£ 

a-v 

| 

a 

1 

| 

1 

1 

o   . 

H 
<r( 

* 

!£ 

•< 

PH 

O 

fc 

P* 

Wheat,  spring  

13. 

10.4 

1  9 

I?  5 

1  8 

71  ? 

?  ? 

Wheat    winter 

26. 

10.5 

1  8 

11  8 

1  8 

9  1 

Wheat,  all  varieties  

3.0 

10.5 

1.8 

11.9 

1.8 

71.9 

2.1 

COMPOSITION  OF  CEREAL  FOODS.— SLOSSON. 


E 

TS 

1 

a 

p*i 

PH^jrf 

1 

6 

&H 

3« 

•< 

fe 

0 

h 

y 

Pettijohn's  Breakfast  Food  

9.5 

1.5 

10.5 

76.9 

1.4 

7.6    Cts. 

Farina                                                    ... 

10.9 

0.7 

10.9 

75.9 

1  5 

15.8 

Cracked  Wheat  

9.3 

1.4 

12.6 

74.4 

7.6 

Wheatlets     .          

10.0 

1.5 

10.4 

76.2 

1  7 

4.3 

Ralston's  Breakfast  Food 

9  7 

1  5 

15  1 

71  7 

1  9 

11  2 

Quaker  Oats  

7.4 

1.6 

17.2 

66.6 

6  8 

7.9 

Bulk  Oat  Meal                              .   .. 

8.7 

1.7 

17.7 

65  8 

6  ^ 

2.5 

Cerealiu'*  

9.5 

0.5 

9.9 

78.7 

1  9, 

9.2 

Velvet  Meal,  (Corn)  

9.8 

0.6 

6.7 

80.5 

2.3 

4.1 

Average  Analysis  of  Wheat  Flour,  Corn  Meal  and  Oat  Meal. 


Wheat  Flour  
Corn  Meal 

12.4 
150 

0.5 
1.4 

10.8 
9  2 

75.1 
706 

1.1 
3  8 

Oat  Meal  

7.0 

2.0 

14.7 

68.3 

7.1 

References:  Univ.  Wyoming,  Bulletin  No.  33,  pp.  82,  83; 
Univ.  Minn.  Agr.  Station  Bulletin  No.  54,  p.  78;  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Division  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  No.  45,  pp.  30,  31,  38-40. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WHEAT  AND  WHEAT  FLOUR. 

Wheat. 

From  very  early  times,  wheat  has  held  the  place  of 
one  of  the  choicest  foods  for  man.  Next  to  rice  it  is 
the  most  extensively  used  by  the  human  race  of  any  of 
the  cereal  grains,  and  the  most  used  among  the  civilized 
nations.  Corn  and  other  coarse  grains  can  be  produced 
at  less  cost  than  wheat,  and  are  not  so  suitable  for 
human  food,  which  accounts  for  wheat  never  having  come 
into  general  use  as  food  for  stock.  There  have  been 
times  when,  owing  to  the  enormous  production  of 
wheat,  its  price  in  some  localities  was  only  a  trifle  more 
than  that  of  corn.  Under  these  circumstances,  farmers 
fed  wheat  in  large  quantities.  One  state  (Kansas),  says 
Mr.  Coburn,  used  in  this  way  4,000,000  bushels  of 
wheat  in  the  year  1893.  The  following  year  more  than 
twice  that  amount  was  dealt  out  to  stock. 

Prof.  Henry,  of  Wisconsin  says,  ''that  wheat  was 
found  to  be  a  food  of  great  palatability,  though  not  equal 
to  corn  for  fattening  purposes ;  yielding  perhaps  ten  per 
cent,  less  returns  in  feeding  fattening  stock."  He  found 
that  wheat  furnished  abundance  of  nutriment,  and, 
through  variety,  gave  edge  to  the  appetite.  In  this  we 
may  learn  a  lesson  from  the  lower  animals, — vary  the 
diet  instead  of  catering  to  a  poor  appetite  by  concocting 
unwholesome  dishes.  The  Prairie  Farmer,  in  1894,  asked 
Swift  &  Co.,  packers  in  Chicago,  to  state  their  opinion 
as  to  the  character  of  the  flesh  of  wheat  and  corn  fed 
animals.  They  replied:  "There  is  quite  a  perceptible 
difference  between  wheat  and  corn  fed  hogs  and  cattle. 
We  do  not  consider  that  wheat-fed  stock  yields  as  well  as 


WHEAT   AND   WHEAT    FLOUR.  77 

corn-fed  stock,  there  being  less  fat.  The  lean  meat  on 
wheat-fed  cattle  has  a  somewhat  brighter  red  than  on 
corn-fed  cattle.  The  lean  meat  from  wheat-fed 'hogs  is 
very  nice,  but  as  the  yield  is  not  so  good,  there  is  no 
particular  advantage  in  it  to*  packers,  but  we  consider 
wheat-fed  stock  worth  as  much  as  corn-fed  stock." 

Physical  Structure  of  the  Wheat  Grain. 

To  study  satisfactorily  the  structure  of  a  grain  of  wheat, 
the  aid  of  the  microscope  is  necessary.  The  use  of  the 
microscope  helps  the  miller  much  in  determining  the 
success  of  his  operations.  By  treating  a  small  portion 
of  flour  with  chemicals,  he  may  be  able  to  know  whether 
the  number  of  bran  particles  in  the  flour  is  large.  By 
the  aid  of  careful  inspection,  he  can  ascertain  whether 
the  bran  is  intact  or  whether  portions  of  one  or  the  other 
of  its  layers  will  be  ground  up  in  the  flour. 

If  we  could  take  a  grain  of  wheat  in  our  fingers  and 
remove  layer  after  layer,  we  would  find  three  parchment- 
like  coverings,  which,  by  chemical  analysis,  give  a  com- 
position about  the  same  as  that  of  wheat  straw.  For 
stock  it  has  practically  the  same  feeding  value  as 
straw,  but  its  nourishing  value  for  man  is  slight.  For 
human  beings  only  the  young  cellulose,  as  found  in  let- 
tuce, spinach,  etc.,  has  any  value  as  a  nutrient.  Cellulose 
is,  however,  necessary  to  give  bulk  to  the  food,  and  aid 
in  the  continual  movement  of  the  contents  of  the  diges- 
tive tract,  but  for  man  it  is  better  obtained  in  mature 
vegetables  than  in  the  form  of  bran.  White  flour  is  more 
valuable,  pound  for  pound,  than  whole-wheat  flour  or  gra- 
ham flour,  for  the  diet  of  most  people,  whether  sick  or 
well.  Commercial  bran  contains  more  than  the  outer 
parchment-like  layer  of  cellulose.  The  inner  layer  of 
bran  consists  of  cellulose,  which  contains  considerable 
protein,  useful  as  stock  food. 

Effects  of  the  Germ  on  Flour. 

Whether  the  flour  makes  a  better  food  with  the  germ 


78  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

incorporated,  or  without  it,  is  a  question  to  which  the 
milling  world  has  given  much  time  and  attention.  Some 
authorities,  among  whom  are  Graham  and  Richardson, 
are  of  the  opinion  that  the  germ  should  by  all  means  be 
removed.  They  believe  that  it  not  only  discolors  the 
flour,  but  has  a  decided  tendency  to  cause  it  to  become 
rancid.  If  the  wheat  is  slightly  unsound,  the  germ  pres- 
ent exerts  a  marked  diastasic  influence  on  the  flour. 
Diastase  is  a  peculiar  substance  generated  during  the 
germination  of  grain  for  the  brewery,  and  tends  to  ac- 
celerate the  formation  of  sugar  during  the  fermentation 
of  the  yeast.  Those  who  favor  incorporating  the  germ 
in  the  flour  claim  that  it  renders  the  flour  sweeter,  and 
that  a  more  palatable  bread  results  from  its  use. 

*"Raw  grain  diastase  is  produced  during  the  produc- 
tion of  the  embryo  in  the  growing  and  unripe  seed,  and 
probably  then  acts  as  translocation  diastase  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  nutritive  matter  for  the  developing 
embryo.  The  portion  of  such  diastase  remaining  unused 
in  the  ripe  seed  constitutes  the  diastase  of  raw  or  un- 
germinated  grain."  Jago  says :  "Milling  experiments 
on  a  large  scale  have  been  made  on  the  germy  semolinas 
produced  during  gradual  reduction.  Semolinas  are  sep- 
arations from  the  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  breaks. 
They  are  similar  to  middlings,  but  are  coarser,  and  con- 
tain more  germ,  and  less  of  the  flour-forming  portions  of 
the  wheat.  Such  semolinas,  on  being  reduced  on  stones, 
yield  a  dark-colored,  unsatisfactory  flour,  which  produces 
a  low  quality  of  bread.  On  rolling  and  repurifying  these 
semolinas,  the  resulting  flour  is  of  good  color,  and  yields 
bread  of  high  quality.  So  far,  experiments  afford  evi- 
dence directly  in  favor  of  removing  the  germ.  The 
steady  demand  for  roller-made  flour  demonstrates  that 
the  opinion  of  the  public  as  consumers  is  in  favor  of  its 
removal." 
*  Jago— Page  281. 


WHEAT   AND   WHEAT    FLOUR.  79 

Wheat  as  Food. 

In  the  microscopical  and  chemical  examination  of  wheat 
bran,  it  is  found  to  contain,  like  straw,  a  large  amount 
of  cellulose.  In  addition  to  this  and  the  aleurone  cells 
which  are  found  on  the  inner  coats,  it  carries  with  it  some 
starch  when  it  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  wheat 
kernel.  Bran  is  found,  in  some  instances,  to  be  a  val- 
uable food  for  farm  stock.  It  contains  a  large  amount 
of  protein  and  mineral  matter,  and  the  bulk  furnished  by 
the  cellulose  is  in  some  cases  an  advantage.  Wheat  is 
such  a  popular  food  for  man  that  the  production  of  by- 
products is  very  large.  The  by-products  are  those  por- 
tions of  wheat  which  are  undesirable  for  human  food,  but 
make  valuable  and  nutritious  food  for  domestic  animals. 
In  the  manufacture  of  flour,  about  twenty-five  to  thirty 
per  cent,  of  the  wheat  grain  is  offal,  and  is  available  for 
stock  feeding. 

When  cereals  are  manufactured  from  wheat,  a  much 
larger  per  cent,  of  it  is  available  for  human  food. 
Color  in  this  case  plays  an  unimportant  part,  and  the 
germ  is  very  palatable  when  properly  manipulated  and 
used.  "Cereals,"  says  Prof.  Atwater,  "when  properly 
prepared,  are  very  completely  digested  and  absorbed." 

Bunge  says,  "that  the  theory  that  the  normal  food  of 
the  adult  is  furnished  by  the  proteids  and  carbohydrates 
in  the  proportion  met  with  in  cereals,  and  that  this  diet 
would  only  require  the  addition  of  fat,  seems  to  be  con- 
firmed by  experience.  The  laborers  in  some  districts  in 
Bavaria,  who  do  the  hardest  work,  are  said  to  live  on  a 
diet  prepared  from  flour  and  lard."  While  this  may 
prove  that,  in  cases  of  extreme  necessity,  people  can  live 
on  such  a  diet,  it  does  not  prove  that  in  this  land  of 
plenty  it  is  a  wise  thing  to  thus  make  the  ration. 

Fat  is  an  important  element  of  food,  but  the  greater 
portion  of  fat  has  been  removed  from  the  wheat  by  dis- 
carding the  germ  in  the  manufacture  of  flour.  The 


80  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

amount  of  fat  in  the  germ  is  given  at  from  nine  to  twelve 
per  cent. 

Starch  makes  up  the  principal  part  of  the  bulk  of  the 
wheat  grain.  In  different  analyses  it  varies  from  sixty- 
three  to  sixty-seven  per  cent.  This  is  an  important  food 
element,  as  it  may  serve  as  fuel,  and  yield  energy  in  the 
form  of  heat  and  muscular  strength,  or  it  can  be  trans- 
formed into  fat. 

Dextrine  exists  in  sound  wheat  in  small  quantity.  The 
presence  of  this  in  either  wheat  or  flour  in  large  quan- 
tity would  be  objectionable.  Much  sugar  indicates  un- 
sound wheat.  A  rather  low  percentage  of  soluble  ex- 
tracts is  an  indication  of  soundness.  The  soluble  ex- 
tracts are  soluble  proteids,  sugar,  dextrine,  potassium, 
and  phosphates. 

Gluten  is  a  very  important  element  in  the  wheat  or  flour. 
It  is  not  only  important  that  it  be  present  in  sufficient 
quantity,  but  its  quality  must  also  be  considered.  Flour 
containing  poor  gluten  makes  fewer  loaves  of  bread  to 
the  number  of  pounds  used,  and  those  few  are  not  well 
risen.  Poor  gluten  will  break  early,  and  allow  the  gases 
to  escape  during  the  process  of  fermentation.  Dough 
having  poor  gluten  is  soft  and  sticky  and  easily  broken. 
Flour  having  good  gluten  will  give  a  tough,  elastic,  and 
well-risen  dough.  It  will  absorb  and  retain  much  water, 
thus  making  a  greater  number  of  loaves  from  the  same 
quantity  of  flour.  Gluten  procured  by  washing  such 
flour  is  tough  and  elastic.  Good  gluten  is  very  necessary 
to  good  bread,  and,  as  it  is  the  muscle-forming  element 
of  the  flour,  it  is  also  a  very  important  food  element. 

The  mineral  matter  of  wheat  occurs  principally  in  the 
bran ;  consequently,  like  the  fat,  is  mostly  lost  in  the  prep- 
aration of  wheat  for  human  consumption  in  the  form  of 
bread.  The  wheat  is  cleaned  of  straw,  large  weed  seeds, 
and  light  particles  of  chaff  and  dirt,  and  in  the  large  mills 
it  is  rubbed  with  brushes  and  tossed  against  sharp  edges  of 


WHEAT    AND    WHEAT    FLOUR.  81 

iron  until  all  the  fuzzy  ends  and  loose  particles  of  hair 
and  dirt  are  removed,  and  the  kernels  are  bright  and 
free  from  all  foreign  substances.  The  wheat  is  then  passed 
between  rough  corrugated  rollers,  which  are  just  far 
enough  apart  to  break  the  kernel  open  on  the  crease  side 
and  flatten  it  out.  The  flakes  of  wheat  are  now  passed 
over  a  fine  sieve,  and  any  small  floury  particles  are  sifted 
out,  and  are  called  "middlings."  The  flakes,  sometimes 
called  "first  break  scalp,"  are  now  run  through  another 
set  of  rolls,  or  breaks,  and  are  crushed  thinner,  and,  on 
passing  through  another  sieve,  give  up  some  more  fine 
flour  from  the  starch  cells  in  the  center  of  the  kernels. 
This  floury  portion  or  middlings  is  mixed  with  that  taken 
out  after  passing  through  the  first  break.  Thus  the 
flakes  called  "break  scalp"  pass  through  half  a  dozen  sets 
of  rolls,  some  flour  being  sifted  out  each  time,  and  in  the 
end  the  flakes  have  been  crushed  and  rubbed  until  the 
floury  part  of  the  kernel  is  all  removed,  and  only  the  flakes 
of  bran  remain.  Though  the  middlings  which  came  out 
after  the  first  break  came  from  the  middle  of  the  kernels, 
and  were  more  nearly  pure  starch,  while  that  which  came 
out  last  was  rubbed  off  the  inner  surface  of  the  bran,  and 
contained  more  protein  or  glutenous  compounds,  all  this 
is  usually  mixed  together.  Strange  as  it  may  seem, 
these  middlings,  which  are  already  nearly  fine  flour,  are 
again  run  between  fine  rollers,  and  are  sometimes  finally 
ground  between  burrs.  The  middlings  are  separated  into 
two  or  three  portions. 

The  miller  tries  to  obtain  a  large  percentage  of  the 
finer  flour  which  he  calls  "patent,"  and  a  small  proportion 
of  bakers'  and  red  dog  flour  since  these  bring  a  less  price. 

Straight-grade  flour  comprises  the  whole  of  the  mar- 
ketable flour  produced  from  the  wheat,  without  assortment 
into  the  grades  just  mentioned. 

The  per  cent,  of  moisture  in  straight-grade  flour  is  al- 
most identical  with  that  of  wheat.  The  per  cent,  of 


82  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

gluten  is  proportionately  greater  than  in  wheat,  the  bran 
and  shorts  having  been  removed.  The  per  cent,  of  ash 
and  phosphoric  acid  is  considerably  lower  for  the  same 
reason.  Fat  and  cellulose  are  likewise  lower  in  percent- 
age.* 

Red  dog  is  the  lowest  grade  of  flour.  It  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein and  fat,  as  it  contains  much  of  the  wheat  germ,  and  is 
valuable  to  stockmen,  but  has  little  value  in  bread-mak- 
ing, because  good  gluten  is  lacking. 

Wheat  can  be  very  completely  freed  from  the  germ 
by  the  roller  process.  The  germs  are  sifted  out  during 
the  process  of  manufacturing  the  flour.  The  germ  forms 
three  by-products,  known  as  first,  second,  and  third  germ. 
They  are  mixed  with  branny  and  starchy  products  of 
the  wheat,  the  second  being  the  purest.  Wheat  germ  is 
utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  breakfast  foods.  The 
poorer  grades  of  flour  are  utilized  by  stockmen. 

The  palatability  of  wheat  is  well  illustrated  in  our  lik- 
ing for  bread,  though  it  is  not  always  so  palatable  a  prod- 
uct as  the  flour  is  capable  of  producing.  One  reason 
for  its  palatability  lies  in  the  fact  that  its  gluten  is  su- 
perior to  that  found  in  any  other  grain.  It  is  capable, 
in  skillful  hands,  of  forming  a  delicate  and  porous  loaf. 
Cereals  manufactured  from  wheat  and  other  grains  are 
very  numerous,  and  should  be  used  more  largely  than 
they  are. 

The  tables  show  that  they  possess  a  high  food  value. 
Much  truth  is  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  fabled  medicine 
man  of  Egypt,  when  he  is  made  to  say :  "My  soul  in 
this  world  is  dependent  upon  my  body,  my  body  on  my 
stomach,  and  my  stomach  on  my  cook."  Nowhere,  it 
seems,  has  the  cook  more  power  over  the  soul  in 
this  way  than  in  the  handling  of  flour  and  cereal  foods. 
Properly  prepared  and  cooked,  they  are  highly  palatable, 
and  very  completely  digested  and  assimilated.  But  if 

*J ago— Page  306. 


WHEAT   AND   WHEAT    FLOUR.  83 

poorly  or  partially  cooked,  their  high  food  value  is  largely 
lost.  Cereals  are  certainly  very  excellent  food,  though 
fancy  names  add  nothing  to  their  food  value,  and  in  some 
cases  their  price  is  very  much  higher  than  their  food 
value  and  their  palatability  warrant. 

Adulterants  in  Wheat  Flour  as  Commonly  Used. 

Rice  meal,  rye  flour,  potato  starch,  cornstarch,  meal 
from  leguminous  plants,  as  peas  or  beans,  and  corn  flour ; 
also  the  following  mineral  bodies  are  sometimes  used 
as  adulterants :  Alum,  borax,  chalk,  carbonate  of  magne- 
sia, and  bone  ash. 

The  tests  for  these  must  be  mostly  made  by  the  chem- 
ist and  microscopist,  as  the  adulterations  are  fine,  like 
flour. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

YEASTS. 


Fermentation. 


*"  'Fermentation'  may  be  defined  as  a  generic  term  ap- 
plied to  that  group  of  chemical  changes  which  are  conse- 
quent on  and  inseparable  from  the  life  and  development 
of  certain  microscopic  organisms." 

There  are  many  kinds  of  fermentation,  a  few  of  which 
are  enumerated :  Alcoholic  fermentation  is  used  in  bread 
making.  Its  products  are  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide. 
Viscous  or  ropy  fermentation  produces  a  ropy  condition, 
and  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  ropy  bread  sometimes 
seen.  A  familiar  example  of  lactic  fermentation  is  seen 
in  the  souring  of  milk.  Its  most  important  product  in 
that  case  is  lactic  acid.  Acetous  fermentation  is  seen 
in  the  change  of  fruit  juice  into  vinegar;  the  sugar 
of  the  liquid  being  changed  so  that  acetic  acid  is  formed. 
In  putrefactive  fermentation,  offensive  products  are 
formed.  The  bread  maker  is  especially  interested  in  al- 
coholic fermentation  and  the  things  which  accelerate,  re- 
tard, or  injure  its  action  in  giving  best  results. 

Yeast  is  regarded  as  a  microscopic  plant.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that,  in  order  that  yeast  be  most  healthy, 
it  must  have  access  to  light  and  air,  in  order  that  it  have 
the  requisite  amount  of  oxygen. 

A  noted  English  authority  on  bread  making  has  made 
experiments  to  prove  this  theory.  He  says:  *"The  ex- 
periments prove  very  clearly  that  the  agitation  has  re- 
sulted in  the  yeast  being  in  every  instance  more  vigorous 
in  action.  In  case  of  the  spontaneous  ferment,  there  was 

*Jago. 


YEASTS.  85 

a  distinct,  though  slow,  evolution  of  gas.  The  sample 
pitched  with  pressed  yeast  had  more  than  twice  the  ca- 
pacity for  causing  the  evolution  of  gas  than  had  those 
which  were  pitched  with  brewer's  yeast.  It  is  plain  that 
agitation  in  some  way  increases  the  vigor  of  yeast."  It 
is  found  that  yeast  grows  better,  also,  when  a  large  sur- 
face is  exposed  to  the  air. 

Influence  of  Temperature  on  Fermentation. 

Yeast  grows  most  rapidly  between  the  temperatures  of 
25  degrees  C.  to  35  degrees  C.,  which  equals  77  degrees 
F.  to  95  degrees  F.  Yeast  ceases  to  grow  at  a  little  less 
than  50  degrees  F.,  but  is  not  always  killed  even  by 
freezing.  Freezing,  however,  is  apt  to  injure  it.  Al- 
though yeast  grows  rapidly  at  95  degrees  F.  (a  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  liquid  merely  feels  warm  to  the  hand, 
as  the  human  temperature  is  about  90  degrees  F.),  the 
temperature  employed  in  English  breweries  is  said  to  be 
from  65  degrees  F.  to  72  degrees  F. 

Let  us  ascertain  why  the  brewer  does  not  hasten  the 
process  of  fermentation.  From  numerous  recent  re- 
searches, there  is  evidence  of  a  number  of  organisms 
which  possess  the  power  of  producing  lactic  acid  by  the 
conversion  of  glucose.  One  or  more  of  these  is  always 
present  in  commercial  yeasts.  Lactic  fermentation  pro- 
ceeds most  favorably  at  a  temperature  of  about  35  de- 
grees C.  and  is  retarded  and  practically  arrested  at  a 
temperature  which  still  permits  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  yeast  organism.  The  other  bacterial  and  al- 
lied ferments  are  also  affected  in  a  similar  manner  by 
temperature.  Hence  75  degrees  F.  to  77  degrees  F., 
which  allows  the  yeast  to  grow  well,  but  retards  the 
growth  of  foreign  ferments,  is  far  better  than  a  higher 
temperature. 


86  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Strength  of  Yeast. 

The  following  experiment,  made  by  Professor  Jago, 
taken  in  connection  with  other  recent  experiments  show- 
ing that  foreign  ferments  in  bread  impair  the  food 
value,  prove  conclusively  that  it  is  far  better  to  use 
plenty  of  good  yeast,  than  a  small  amount,  or  poor 
yeast,  or  use  no  yeast,  but  simply  a  starter  and  de- 
pend upon  spontaneous  fermentation.  In  the  experi- 
ment, sterilized  vessels  are  used,  and  the  same  amount  of 
wort  placed  in  each.  The  vessels  are  loosely  covered  and 
the  temperature  is  kept  at  77  degrees  F.,— a  temperature 
best  adapted  to  allow  the  yeast  to  overcome  the  foreign 
ferments.  One  vessel  of  wort  was  left  plain,  that  it 
might  ferment  spontaneously;  to  the  second,  fifteen 
grains  of  good  brewer's  yeast  was  added;  to  th«  third, 
ten  grains  of  compressed  yeast  was  added.  The  two 
with  yeast  were  aerated;  the  other  one  was  not.  They 
were  allowed  to  stand  the  same  length  of  time,  and  on 
examination,  the  one  to  which  no  yeast  was  added  was 
found  to  be  swarming  with  bacteria,  and  no  yeast  cells 
were  present.  .Those  which  were  started  with  yeast  had 
practically  no  foreign  ferments.  The  conclusion  drawn 
is  that  at  that  temperature  yeast  is  vigorous  and  hardy, 
and  overcomes  the  power  of  foreign  ferments.  Yeast 
always  produces  a  sweeter  and  finer-flavored  bread  than 
other  ferments  do.  Yeast  which  is  made  with  hops  is 
able  to  overcome  the  power  of  foreign  ferments  longer 
than  that  made  without  hops,  because  the  bitter  of  the 
hops  is  not  suited  to  bacterial  growth,  but  since  one  can 
use  but  little  of  a  yeast  made  with  hops  without  injuring 
the  flavor  of  the  bread,  and  a  weak  yeast  acts  so  slowly 
as  to  cause  disastrous  results,  it  is  better  to  make  yeast 
oftener  without  hops,  and  use  plenty  of  it  in  bread  mak- 
ing. There  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  yeast. 
Brewer's  yeast,  according  to  the  best  authority,  is  not 
the  best  yeast  for  bread-making  purposes,  because  the 


YEASTS.  87 

brewer's  business  demands  yeast,  and  he  uses  good  yeast 
in  his  business,  and  the  supply  of  best  yeast  is  conse- 
quently limited.  In  a  fermenting  liquid,  the  middle  yeast 
is  considered  stronger  and  more  vigorous  than  that  on 
either  the  top  or  bottom  part  of  the  fermenting  liquid. 
Therefore  it  is  wise  for  the  breadmaker  always  to  stir  the 
yeast  well  before  taking  out  a  portion  for  breadmaking. 
In  speaking  of  brewer's  yeasts,  Jago,  in  "Science  and 
Art  of  Bread  Making,"  says :  "Too  frequently  that  sold 
to  bakers  is  the  refuse  yeast  from  either  the  beginning 
or  the  end  of  fermentation.  Bakers  who  use  brewer's 
yeast  should  insist  on  being  supplied  with  that  equal  in 
quality  to  what  the  brewer  himself  uses  in  starting  fer- 
mentation. To  the  baker,  as  regards  yeast,  above  all 
things,  the  best  is  the  cheapest.  One  spoiled  batch  of 
bread  will  cost  the  difference  between  good  and  bad 
yeast,  over  probably  many  weeks  or  months." 

What  is  true  of  poor  yeast  in  the  bakery  is  true  of 
poor  yeast  in  the  home.  There  are  yeasts  known  as  "pat- 
ent yeasts."  These  are  made  by  bakers  for  their  own  use. 
There  is  no  reason  why  these  yeasts  should  not  be  uni- 
versally good,  provided  the  baker  is  skilled  in  the  art 
of  manufacturing  yeast,  and  is  willing  to  give  it  suffi- 
cient attention,  and  to  use  only  the  best  materials  in  its 
manufacture.  The  author  quoted  before  says  :  "In  mak- 
ing patent  yeasts,  it  is  very  poor  economy  to  stint  either 
malt  or  hops.  A  weak  wort  produces  a  much  less  healthy 
and  vigorous  yeast  than  does  a  strong  one,  besides  being 
much  more  subject  to  disease  fermentation  and  conse- 
quent acidity."  The  same  rule  will  apply  to  making  yeast, 
at  home.  The  yeast  must  be  made  often  and  the  vessels 
must  be  sterilized,  and  a  strong  and  vigorous  yeast  used 
to  start  with,  if  one  would  obtain  the  best  results  and 
avoid  a  weak  yeast,  with  many  foreign  ferments. 

There  is  another  variety  of  patent  yeast  known  as 
"flour  barm."  This  is  extensively  used  in  Scotland.  The 


88  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

chief  peculiarity  of  bread  from  this  is  its  decidedly  acid 
taste,  thought  to  be  due  principally  to  lactic  acid.  Much 
salt  is  used  in  making  this  bread,  and  it  has  not  the  flavor 
of  what,  in  some  other  countries,  is  called  the  best  bread. 

*"Virgin  barm  differs  from  Parisian  only  in  being  self- 
fermented.  Parisian  barm  was  introduced  from  Paris  to 
Scotland  about  thirty  years  ago.  It  is  essentially  a  leaven- 
ing ferment,  a  scientific  modification  of  the  systems  of 
ancient  Egypt  and  modern  France." 
Dry  Yeast. 

The  dry  yeast  cakes  of  commerce  are  simply  yeast 
made  by  some  one  of  the  foregoing  processes,  and  mixed 
with  some  cereal  preparation,  cut  into  cakes,  and  dried. 
Dry  yeast,  when  it  can  be  obtained  fresh,  will  make  a 
very  good  quality  of  bread.  In  making  bread  with  this 
yeast,  it  is  well  to  use  potato  water.  In  making  yeast, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  both  carbohydrate  and  pro- 
teid  matter.  Such  grains  as  corn,  rye,  and  barley  are 
used.  A  small  amount  of  grain  is  best  malted  and  then 
reduced  to  the  proper  fineness.  It  is  then  fermented  to 
the  proper  stage,  when  the  "starter"  yeast  is  added,  and 
it  stands  from  ten  to  fourteen  hours  at  a  certain  tem- 
perature. The  other  necessary  grain  is  prepared  and 
added  at  the  proper  time,  and  after  a  series  of  necessary 
manipulations,  the  yeast  rises  to  the  surface,  is  skimmed 
off,  washed,  properly  prepared,  and  made  into  the  cakes 
in  which  we  see  it.  For  a  full  description  of  the  process 
of  making  compressed  yeast,  see  "Science  and  Art  of 
Bread  Making,"  Jago. 

Good  compressed  yeast  should  not  be  waxy,  but  should 
break  brittle.  It  should  have  a  pleasant  odor,  and  act 
quickly  when  added  to  a  sponge.  Compressed  yeast, 
when  fresh,  is  strong  and  vigorous,  certain  to  produce 
good  results  under  proper  conditions  and  handling.  The 
only  objection  to  this  yeast  is  that  it  is  expensive,  and 
does  not  keeep  fresh  long.  While  we  pay  what  seems 
*Jago. 


YEASTS.  89 

like  a  large  price  for  a  small  amount  of  yeast,  we  get 
more  good  lively  yeast  plants  in  one  of  those  small  cakes 
than  in  a  much  larger  quantity  of  other  yeasts.  It  is 
better  to  buy  this  to  start  with,  when  possible,  for  good 
wholesome  bread  can  be  made  with  home-made  yeast  if 
one  has  good  yeast  to  start  it  with;  but  after  home- 
made yeast  is  used  several  times  to  start  with,  the  yeast 
produced  becomes  too  weak  for  the  best  results,  and 
needs  reinvigorating.  Home-made  yeast  is  best  kept  in 
a  glass  jar.  Such  a  receptable  can  be  washed  and  steril- 
ized each  time  fresh  yeast  is  made,  and  this  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  insure  the  yeast  against  foreign  ferments. 
Compressed  yeast  keeps  best  with  the  wrappers  removed, 
and  the  yeast  put  into  a  glass  jar  and  covered  with  cold 
water.  The  water  should  be  changed  the  same  as  on 
cut  flowers.  The  yeast  must  then  be  measured  with  a 
spoon  when  used. 

Methods  of  Rendering  Dough  Light  without  Yeast. 

Aerated  bread  is  made  light  by  a  mechanical  process. 
The  liquid  with  which  the  flour  is  mixed  into  dough  is 
charged  with  carbon  dioxide.  The  manipulations  are  so 
performed  as  to  prevent  the  gas  escaping  until  the  dough 
is  made,  when  the  imprisoned  gas  expands  and  renders  the 
dough  light  at  once.  The  flavor  of  such  bread  is  not 
considered  so  fine  as  that  of  the  best  yeast-risen  bread, 
and  people  usually  tire  of  it  in  time. 

Baking  powders  render  doughs  light  by  means  of  car- 
bon dioxide  gas.  The  gas  is  produced  in  the  dough  usual- 
ly by  the  action  of  some  acid  on  sodium  bicarbonate.  This 
action  is,  in  some  powders,  brought  about  by  the  presence 
of  moisture  alone,  while  in  others  heat  is  necessary  to  its 
action.  In  using  the  powders  which  act  by  the  presence 
of  moisture  alone,  one  must  work  rapidly,  that  the  dough 
may  be  placed  in  the  oven  and  become  set  by  the  heat 
before  the  gas  escapes,  in  order  that  the  air  cells  may  re- 
main distended. 


90  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Baking  powders  may  be  classed  under  three  general 
heads, — tartrate  powders,  phosphate  powders,  and  alum 
powders.  Some  baking  powders  contain  two  or  more  of 
the  above  acids  in  their  composition.  The  tartrate  pow- 
ders, as  the  name  indicates,  have  tartaric  acid  for  their 
acid  portion.  This  may  be  simply  tartaric  acid,  or  it 
may  be  combined  so  as  to  require  a  different  name.  The 
two  acids  used  in  the  tartrate  powders  are  tartaric  acid 
and  cream  of  tartar.  A  tartaric  acid  powder  requires 
that  the  dough  be  handled  quickly  and  put  into  a  hot  oven, 
as  the  acid  dissolves  readily,  and  the  action  is  soon  over. 
In  using  a  cream  of  tartar  powder  such  great  haste  is  not 
absolutely  necessary,  for  cream  of  tartar  dissolves  slowly 
in  cold  water,  but  rapidly  when  heat  is  applied.  The 
housekeeper  can  readily  ascertain  whether  a  powder  dis- 
solves rapidly  or  slowly  by  placing  a  small  amount  in  a 
glass,  and  testing  with  cold  water  and  then  with  hot 
water.  All  baking  powders  contain  some  air-dried  starch 
in  addition  to  the  acid  and  alkaline  portions.  The  object 
of  using  the  starch  is  to  prevent  the  powder  losing  its 
power  by  the  acid  and  alkaline  portions  acting  on  each 
other  in  the  presence  of  absorbed  atmospheric  moisture. 
The  baking  powder  can  should  always  be  kept  closely 
covered,  as  moisture  enters  from  the  atmosphere. 

The  phosphate  baking  powders  contain  some  form  of 
phosporic  acid  as  the  acid  constituent.  Doughs  mixed 
with  phosphate  powders  should  be  handled  quickly,  as  the 
powder  begins  to  act  as  soon  as  dissolved  in  water. 

Among  the  chemicals  used  as  the  acid  portion  in  alum 
baking  powders  are  potassium  bisulphate  (KHSO4) 
and  alum.  According  to  Jago,  "the  potassium  and  sodi- 
um sulphates  produced  when  these  substances  are  neu- 
tralized by  sodium  bicarbonate  are  powerful  purgatives, 
and  as  such  are  absolutely  unfitted  for  introduction  into 
bread." 

It  is  evident  that,  for  general  use,  yeast  bread,  when 


YEASTS.  91 

properly  made  and  baked,  is  preferable  to  any  of  the 
above-named  breads.  It  has  a  fine  flavor,  and  produces 
no  deleterious  results. 

In  every  farm  home  the  hot  breads  should  usually  be 
made  with  sour  milk  and  soda.  To  be  skillful  in  the  use 
of  soda  requires  good  judgment  and  constant  practice,  but 
to  many  the  products  are  more  delicious  than  those  in 


Utensils   Used   in   Bread   Making. 

which  baking  powder  is  used,  and  they  are  very  whole- 
some. When  eggs  are  used  for  rendering  breads  and 
cakes  light,  we  depend  on  beating  air  into  the  eggs  and 
dough,  and  keeping  it  there  until,  expanded  by  heat,  it 
makes  the  dough  light. 

If  one  wishes  to  make  baking  powder  at  home,  it  can 
be  done  by  mixing  cream  of  tartar  and  soda  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda  and  two  of 
cream  of  tartar.  Sift  two  or  three  times,  to  be  certain 
that  it  is  thoroughly  mixed,  and  use  at  once.  To  make  a 
powder  that  can  be  kept,  secure  eight  ounces  of 
cream  of  tartar  of  good  quality,  four  ounces  of  baking- 
soda,  and  three  ounces  of  cornstarch.  Be  sure  that  all 
the  ingredients  are  perfectly  dry.  Sift  the  soda  and 
starch  (after  stirring  together  in  a  perfectly  dry  bowl 
until  mixed)  three  times,  letting  it  fall  onto  a  paper  on 


92  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

the  table,  and  placing  a  second  paper  under  the  sieve. 
Pour  the  mixture  again  into  the  sieve,  and  shake  through. 
When  these  have  been  sifted  three  times,  stir  the  cream 
of  tartar  into  them,  and  sift  in  same  manner  as  before. 
When  done,  put  into  a  closely-covered  tin  can  or  Mason 
jar,  and  keep  in  a  dry  place,  closely  covered.  Use  a  heap- 
ing teaspoonful  to  each  cup  of  flour. 

References:     Science  &  Art  of  Bread  Making — Jago — pp. 
237,  238,  244,  252,  257,  346-365,  386-389.      Also  pages  360-365, 
395,  397,  398. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

BREAD  MAKING. 

In  order  that  the  same  grade  of  flour  may  have  always, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  the  same  strength  and  quality,  some 
mills  employ  a  person  who  makes  into  bread  a  certain 
weighed  quantity  of  flour  as  often  as  is  necessary  to 
know  the  strength  of  the  flour  milled,  and  the  proportions 
of  glutenous  and  starchy  wheats  are  varied  as  determined 
by  the  results. 

Flours  made  from  different  kinds  of  wheat  vary  greatly 
in  strength.  Strong  flour  will  rise  high  in  loaf,  and  will 
absorb  a  large  amount  of  water.  The  baker  will  pay 
more  for  strong  flour,  because  from  a  hundred  pounds 
of  strong  flour  he  can  make  a  larger  number  of  loaves 
than  from  weak  flour.  With  flour  of  medium  strength, 
the  housewife  can  make  loaves  with  beautiful  crust,  crumb 
fine,  soft,  and  not  quickly  dried  out,  aromatic,  and  of 
nutty  flavor, — such  bread  as  will  take  the  place  of  cakes 
and  pies.  Uniformity  in  strength  is  very  much  desired, 
so  that  the  baker,  having  learned  to  make  good  loaves 
from  a  given  sample  of  flour,  can,  with  uniform  treat- 
ment, always  supply  the  family  with  choice  loaves. 

Strength  is  given  a  flour  by  the  gluten,  which  forms 
about  one-seventh  of  the  weight  of  the  flour.  Gluten  is 
made  up  of  several  nitrogenous  compounds,  mainly  glia.- 
din  and  glutenin.  The  proportion  of  these  two  sub- 
stances determines  the  strength  of  the  gluten.  Much 
gliadin  and  little  glutenin  makes  a  soft,  sticky  dough ;  an 
excess  of  glutenin  and  a  small  amount  of  gliadin  makes 
weak  dough ;  while  wheat  which  has  six  parts  gliadin  to 
four  parts  glutenin  makes  a  strong  flour,  which  will  rise 
high,  and  will  retain  its  ability  to  rise  till  worked  down 


94  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

two  or  more  times.  In  bread  making,  dough  should  rise 
only  once  before  moulding  into  loaves.  (See  Minnesota 
Bulletin  No.  54.) 

The  food  value  of  flour  does  not  always  correspond  to 
its  strength.  The  percentage  of  gluten  has  very  much 
to  do  with  its  food  value,  since  the  flesh-forming  gluten 
has  more  value  per  pound  than  the  heat-forming  starch, 
sugar,  and  cellulose.  Flours  vary  from  seven  to  eighteen 
per  cent,  of  gluten.  The  standard  flours  from  the  north- 
ern mills  have  from  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  gluten. 

The  price  of  the  best  flour  is  often  twice  that  of  the 
lowest  grades,  because  it  is  easier  manipulated,  makes  a 
whiter  loaf,  with  softer  crumb,  and  a  more  palatable 
and  more  healthful  bread.  Such  flours  do  not  always 
contain  food  substances  of  greater  value.  In  fact,  the 
stockman  might  properly  choose  some  of  the  low-grade 
flours  for  his  animals,  in  preference  to  the  best  patent. 
The  modern  roller  mills  make  several  different  grades  of 
flours,  as  patent,  bakers',  and  low-grade  flour.  The 
prices  at  wholesale  are  relatively  as  follows :  Best  Pat- 
ent, $3.70  per  bbl. ;  Straight,  $3.50  per  bbl. ;  First  Bakers' 
Patent,  $3.45  per  bbl. ;  Second  Bakers'  Patent,  $3.30  per 
bbl.;  Low  Grade  (Red  Dog)  $17.00  per  ton. 

The  chemical  composition  of  these  flours  is  shown 
in  the  following  tables  : 

__ COMPOSITION  OF  GRADES  OF  FLOUR. 

[~Dry  Matter  I      Ash      I      Fat      I  Protein  I  Carbohydrates 

I      per  cent      |  percent  |  percent  |  percent  |         percent 

Patent  Flour I         87.64         I        .51       \       T62      j      12.44  73^07 

Bakers'  Flour |         91.96         |        .75 2.22      |      15.50     |  73.52 

See  Jordan  and  Hall's  Bulletin  on  Digestibility  of  Food  Stuffs. 

Red  dog  flour,  on  account  of  the  poor  quality  of  bread 
which  it  produces,  is  used  mostly  for  stock  feeding.  The 
following  is  its  composition,  as  given  by  Henry,  in  "Feeds 
and  Feeding:" 


Dry 
Matter 
in  100 
pounds 

Digestible  Nutrients  in 
100  pounds. 

Fertilis 
in 

Nitro- 
gen. 

ing   Constituents 
1000  pounds. 

Pro 
tein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Ether 
extract 

Phosphor- 
ic acid. 

Pot- 
ash 

RedDogFlour |      90.3        |  13.5    |        61.3       |      2.0      |      31.8    |        21.4          |    10.9 


BREAD  MAKING.  95 

In  red  dog  flour  are  portions  of  the  germ  of  the  wheat, 
which,  though  made  up  of  rich  muscle-forming  foods  and 
of  oils,  are  of  such  a  mechanical  nature  as  not  to  aid  in 
making  the  loaf  light. 

The  action  of  yeast  in  the  dough  is  to  produce  gas  by 
breaking  up  the  starch  and  other  compounds  of  the  flour. 
This  gas  tries  to  escape  by  expanding,  and  in  doing  so 
enlarges  within  the  minute  interstices  of  the  dough. 
As  the  gas  accumulates,  these  interstices  become  larger, 
and  the  walls  of  gluten  with  entangled  particles  of  starch 
are  stretched  out  into  thin  plates.  If  the  glutenous  mem- 
brane is  made  up  of  the  right  proportions  of  glutenin  and 
gliadin,  without  too  much  other  proteids,  it  is  tough,  and 
may  be  stretched  to  a  large  size  in  thin  sheets,  just  as  a 
child  at  play  may  make  very  large  bubbles  if  his  mix- 
ture of  soap  and  water  is  pure  and  properly  combined. 

When  heat  is  applied  in  baking  bread,  the  gluten  is 
coagulated  or  hardened,  just  as  an  egg  is  hardened  by 
heating,  so  that  the  thin  plates  separating  the  interstices 
lose  their  power  of  contracting,  or  of  being  further 
stretched.  The  desire  is  to  have  the  bread  light,  yet  with 
comparatively  small  interstices  or  pores  in  the  crumb, 
preferably  none  larger  than  a  kernel  of  wheat.  To  se- 
cure a  fine  crumb,  the  reworking  of  the  dough,  the  time 
to  place  the  loaf  in  the  oven,  and  the  heat  of  the  oven 
must  be  so  managed  as  to  have  the  gluten  hardened 
when  the  loaf  is  properly  raised.  Experience  with  a 
given  brand  of  flour  will  enable  the  baker  to  determine 
the  number  of  times  to  work  the  dough  down,  and  the 
amount  of  kneading  to  give  it ;  also  the  size  to  allow  the 
loaves  to  rise  the  last  time,  so  as  to  give  the  desired 
texture  of  crumb.  If  the  oven  is  quite  hot  when  the 
loaves  are  put  in,  a  crust  of  coagulated  gluten  is  soon 
formed,  which  will  hold  up  the  interior  of  the  loaf,  pre- 
venting the  crumb  from  contracting  into  a  sodden  mass, 
as  sometimes  occurs  when  the  oven  is  not  hot,  and  the 
loaf  is  heated  up  too  slowly. 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Patent  and  other  superior  kinds  of  flour  sell  higher 
than  the  poorer  grades,  because  their  gluten,  even  though 
it  be  less  in  quantity,  will  stand  up  till  baked  into  beauti- 
ful palatable  loaves,  and  the  crumb  may  be  eaten  with- 
out doughing  up  in  the  mouth.  Fine  white  bread  is  at 
once  cake  and  the  staff  of  life.  No  other  cake  compares 
with  it  as  a  source  of  every-day  enjoyment,  and  no  other 
bread  will  take  its  place  where  civilization  has  introduced 
it.  White  bread  is  the  most  important  dish  of  civiliza- 
tion. The  woman  who  presents  her  family  with  perfect 
bread  at  every  meal,  and,  with  it,  good  butter  and  cold 
water  or  milk,  has  a  basis  upon  which  to  feed  any  mem- 
ber of  her  family  and  every  guest,  whether  well,  sick,  or 
notional.  Good  white  bread  and  water  are  the  two  uni- 
versal foods  ;  no  one  tires  of  them. 

A  pound  loaf  of  bread  can  be  made  from  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound  of  flour,  about  twenty-five  per  cent. 
of  water  being  added  to  the  flour  during  the  process  of 
bread  making.  With  some  flours,  five  to  ten  per  cent. 
more  water  can  be  absorbed,  making  a  greater  weight  of 
bread  product  from  a  given  weight  of  flour.  This  addi- 
tional weight  is  water,  and  not  nutrients.  At  two  cents 
per  pound  for  flour,  it  is  estimated  that  a  pound  loaf  of 
bread  can  be  made,  not  counting  fuel  and  labor,  for  about 
two  cents;  half  a  cent  being  allowed  for  shortening  and 
yeast. 

Next  to  the  quality  of  the  flour,  the  things  which  are  of 
paramount  importance  in  bread  making  are  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  the  yeast,  the  temperature  at  which  the 
dough  is  kept  while  rising,  and  the  length  of  time  which 
is  allowed  to  elapse  between  the  time  of  adding  the  yeast 
to  the  mixture  and  the  baking  of  the  bread. 

The  discoveries  in  the  new  world — the  world  of  little 
things — by  Pasteur  and  others,  have  led  to  the  preparation 
of  yeast  of  superior  quality. 

"About  the  year  1875,  some  practical  experiments  were 


BREAD  MAKING.  97 

made  in  connection  with  the  new  process  of  brewing,  and 
a  yeast  of  irreproachable  purity  was  cultivated  and  used. 
This  yeast,  which  was  repeatedly  used  during  the  sum- 
mer of  that  year,  always  produced  a  beer  of  remarkable 
keeping  properties,  while  beer  made  at  the  same  brewing 
from  the  same  wort  by  the  ordinary  process  did  not  re- 
main sound  three  weeks,  though  kept  in  the  same  cellar 
as  the  other." 

It  is  not  possible  for  us  to  have  strictly  pure  yeast  for 
use  in  bread  making,  and  it  might  not  be  best  for  this 
purpose  if  we  had  it,  but  we  can  have  yeast  sufficiently 
pure  to  produce  a  quality  of  bread  which  is  in  every  sense 
wholesome,  palatable,  and  possessed  of  good  keeping 
qualities.  When  compressed  yeast  cannot  be  obtained 
fresh,  it  is  better  to  use  home-made  yeast,  which  can  al- 
ways be  had  fresh  and  vigorous. 

In  order  to  insure  good  results  in  bread  making,  no 
longer  time  than  five  hours  should  be  allowed  to  elapse 
between  the  time  that  the  ferment  is  set,  and  that  at  which 
the  bread  is  taken  from  the  oven.  The  temperature 
should  range  from  75  degrees  to  80  degrees  F.,  as  this 
degreee  of  heat  is  favorable  to  the  action  of  the  yeast, 
but  less  favorable  to  the  development  and  multiplication 
of  the  ferments  present,  which  in  their  action  produce 
deleterious  effects.  These,  left  a  longer  time  than  four 
hours,  will  accomplish  some  of  their  destructive  work. 
A  good  example  of  the  evil  effects  produced  by  giving 
too  much  time  to  fermentation  can  be  frequently  seen  on 
some  tables.  Take  a  roll  or  biscuit,  and  you  find  it  a 
sample  of  fermented  bread  of  very  good  quality,  but 
choose  a  slice  of  a  loaf  made  the  same  day,  and  it  is  in- 
ferior in  appearance,  taste,  and  nutritive  qualities.  In- 
vestigation will  usually  prove  that  the  ferment  for  loaf 
and  rolls  was  set  at  the  same  time,,  and  the  rolls  were 
baked  for  tea,  while  the  loaves  set  an  hour  longer  before 
going  into  the  oven.  A  single  simple  experiment  is  suftV 


98  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cient  to  prove  that  the  temperature  at  which  the  dough  is 
kept  while  rising  has  a  great  influence  on  the  quality  of 
the  bread  produced.  Mix  at  as  nearly  the  same  time  as 
possible  three  portions  of  dough,  using  plenty  of  good 
yeast,  and  having  all  conditions  except  temperature  the 
same  in  the  three  cases.  Let  one  portion  be  mixed  with 
a  warm  liquid,  and  set  in  a  warm  place  to  rise,  at  90  de- 
grees F.,  another  mixed  with  a  liquid  at  65  degrees  F., 
and  a  third  at  75  degrees  F.,  and  allow  to  continue  at 
those  temperatures  while  rising,  and,  when  baked,  com- 
pare the  loaves  as  to  color,  taste,  and  odor,  and  those  who 
believe  that  much  yeast  yields  the  unpalatable  product 
known  as  "yeasty  bread"  will  notice  that  the  loaf  in  which 
right  conditions  were  followed  gives  off  a  pleasant  odor, 
and  has  a  fine  flavor,  though  the  same  quantity  of  yeast 
was  used  as  in  the  loaf  which  presents  the  unsightly  ap- 
pearance, and  has  the  disagreeable  taste  and  smell  pro- 
duced by  too  high  or  too  low  a  temperature. 

Loss  OF  DRY  MATTER  IN  BREAD  MAKING. 

*"In  bread  making,  the  action  of  the  yeast  and  heat 
results  in  (i)  the  fermentation  of  the  carbohydrates, 
and  the  production  of  carbon  dioxide  and  alcohol;  (2) 
the  production  of  soluble  carbohydrates,  as  dextrin,  from 
insoluble  forms,  as  starch;  (3)  the  production  of  lactic 
and  other  acids;  (4)  the  formation  of  other  volatile  car- 
bon compounds;  (5)  a  change  in  the  solubility  of  the 
proteid  compounds;  (6)  the  formation  of  amid  and  am- 
monium compounds  from  soluble  proteids;  and  (7)  the 
partial  oxidation  of  the  fat.  In  addition  to  these  changes 
there  are  undoubtedly  many  others  which  take  place. 
Inasmuch  as  many  of  the  compounds  formed  during  the 
fermentation  process  are  either  gases  or  are  volatile  at 
the  temperature  of  baking,  appreciable  losses  of  dry 
matter  must  necessarily  take  place  in  bread  making. 
These  losses  are  usually  considered  as  amounting  to 
about  two  per  cent,  of  the  flour  used.  In  exceptional 

*  Minnesota  Bulletin  No.  67. 


BREAD  MAKING.  99 

cases,  as  in  prolonged  fermentation,  under  favorable  con- 
ditions the  losses  may  amount  to  eight  per  cent,  or  more. 

Loss  OF  CARBON  IN  THE  FORM  OF  ALCOHOL. 

"During  the  fermentation  process  in  bread  making, 
the  production  of  carbon  dioxide  is  accompanied  by  the 
production  of  alcohol.  Theoretically,  for  every  part  of 
carbon  dioxide  gas  formed  there  is  also  produced  1.04 
parts  of  alcohol.  It  is  generally  supposed  that,  during 
baking,  the  alcohol  is  entirely  given  off.  The  above  theo- 
retical experiments,  when  calculated  on  the  basis  of 
amounts  of  alcohol  formed  during  bread  making  in  the 
the  carbon  dioxide  evolved,  would  be  as  follows,  in  the 
short-fermentation  process:  (i)  i.io  per  cent,  alcohol: 
(2)  1.13  per  cent,  alcohol;  (3)  1.04  per  cent,  alcohol. 
Similar  values  for  the  long-fermentation  process  would 
be:  (5)  0.83  per  cent,  alcohol.;  (6)  0.94  per  cent,  al- 
cohol; (7)  i  per  cent,  alcohol;  (8)  1.07  per  cent,  alco- 
hol; general  average,  1.02. 

"On  an  average  there  is  about  i  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  alcohol  produced  when  bread  is  made.  It  serves  a 
useful  purpose.  In  baking,  the  alcohol  is  volatilized  and 
the  vapor  aids  the  carbon  dioxide  in  expanding  the 
dough,  thus  making  the  bread  more  porous. 

"Samples  of  normal  fresh  bread  were  subjected  to  dis- 
tillation and  to  other  tests,  but  the  distillate  did  not  con- 
tain enough  alcohol  to  give  an  appreciable  reaction. 

"In  general  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  on  an  average 
about  i  per  cent,  of  alcohol  formed  during  bread  mak- 
ing, and  no  appreciable  amount  of  this  alcohol  is  left  in 
the  bread. 
PRODUCTION  OF  SOLUBLE  CARBOHYDRATES  IN  BREAD  MAKING. 

"In  wheat  flour,  the  carbohydrates  are  present  mainly 
in  the  form  of  insoluble  starch.  There  are,  however,  a 
number  of  other  insoluble  carbohydrates  and  small 
amounts  of  soluble  carbohydrates,  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
dextrin,  with  a  small  amount  of  sucrose. 


100  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

"The  soluble  carbohydrates  of  wheat  investigated  by 
the  Division  of  Chemistry  were  invert  sugar,  sucrose, 
and  dextrin  or  galactin. 

"In  addition  to  the  soluble  carbohydrates  mentioned 
above,  small  amounts  of  rafrmose  have  been  reported  by 
several  investigators  in  wheat  germs.  Wheat  germ  con- 
tains more  sucrose  than  any  other  of  the  wheat  prod- 
ucts, and  the  amount  of  soluble  carbohydrates  in  wheat 
flour  depends  largely  upon  the  proportion  of  germ  pres- 
ent. 

"A  sample  of  flour  (No.  2)  used  in  the  experiments  at 
the  Minnesota  Station  to  determine  the  extent  to  which 
starch  is  changed  to  soluble  forms  in  bread  making  con- 
tained 1.62  per  cent,  of  soluble  carbohydrates,  calculated 
as  dextrin. 

"In  addition  to  the  production  of  alcohol  and  carbon 
dioxide  gas  by  fermentation,  the  action  of  the  yeast  and 
heat  results  in  the  production  of  soluble  carbohydrates 
from  insoluble  forms.  During  the  baking  process,  the 
heat  changes  some  starch  to  dextrin.  In  the  process  of 
bread  making,  this  results  in  both  the  consumption  and 
production  of  soluble  carbohydrates.  The  extent  to  which 
insoluble  starch  is  changed  to  soluble  forms  in  bread  mak- 
ing is  a  subject  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  ex- 
tensively investigated.  Koenig  states  that  fine  wheat 
bread  contains  4.02  per  cent,  sugar  and  coarse  bread  2.08 
per  cent.  The  term  'sugar,'  however,  is  not  defined. 

"The  extent  to  which  soluble  carbohydrates  are  either 
consumed  or  produced  during  bread  making  is  an  im- 
portant matter,  because  flour  contains  on  an  average 
sixty-five  per  cent,  or  more  of  starch,  and  any  change 
affecting  the  starch  has  a  direct  effect  upon  both  the 
composition  and  value  of  the  bread  produced.  In  or- 
der to  determine  the  extent  to  which  soluble  carbohy- 
drates are  produced,  six  experiments  were  made.  In 
three  experiments  the  bread  was  made  by  the  short-fer- 


BREAD  MAKING.  101 

mentation  process,   and   in  three   other   experiments   by 
the  long-fermentation  process." 

The  following  from  the  same  bulletin  shows  that  there 
is  a  loss  of  food  value  as  well : 

"Under  the  conditions  of  these  experiments,  there  was 
an  average  loss  of  1.58  per  cent,  of  total  dry  matter, 
and  1.45  per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen.  The  difference 
between  the  amount  of  nitrogen  in  the  bread  and  that 
in  the  flour  and  yeast  is  so  small  that  it  might  well  be 
questioned  whether  this  loss  is  not  within  the  limits  of  er- 
ror of  ordinary  chemical  work." 

While  the  amount  of  nitrogen  lost  when  bread  is 
properly  made  is  small,  the  amount  lost  when  bread  is 
not  properly  made  may  materially  exceed  the  figures 
given  in  the  experiments  to  which  reference  has  just  been 
made. 

Using  a  yeast  of  questionable  quality,  the  bread  maker 
has  no  assurance  that  she  will  have  a  perfect  loaf,  though 
the  best  of  flour  may  be  used,  and  the  greatest  atten- 
tion given  to  all  necessary  conditions. 

Any  yeast  which  answers  the  required  conditions  will 
bring  satisfactory  results.  We  have  no  good  means  by 
which  to  know,  on  looking  at  a  cake  of  dry  yeast  or  a 
cup  of  liquid  yeast,  whether  there  is  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  germs  in  such  a  state  of  activity  as  to  enable 
it  to  make  the  dough  light  in  so  short  a  time  that  the 
other  ferments,  which  are  always  present  in  commercial 
yeast,  will  not  be  able  to  produce  a  deleterious  effect 
upon  the  elements  of  the  flour.  Therefore  it  is  wise  to 
test  the  yeast  with  a  small  amount  of  sponge  first. 

Besides  the  yeast,  one  needs  only  a  little  salt,  a  known 
quantity  of  liquid,  and  sufficient  flour  to  make  a  dough 
of  the  proper  consistency,  in  order  to  be  able  to  make 
'  bread  of  the  best  quality.  The  liquid  may  be  water,  or 
milk  and  water,  or  milk  alone,  but  the  milk  must  be 
always  positively  sweet,  and  it  is  safer  in  summer  to 


102  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

scald  and  cool  before  using.  Bread  made  with  water  is 
tougher  than  that  made  with  milk.  French  bread  is 
mixed  with  water  alone,  Vienna  bread  with  milk  and  wa- 
ter, and  there  are  several  varieties  in  which  milk  is  the 
only  liquid  used. 

There  is  no  good  reason  for  putting  butter  or  fat  of 
any  kind  into  bread,  but  there  is  an  excellent  reason  for 
leaving  it  out,  as  it  retards  the  action  of  the  yeast.  Sugar 
is  not  needed,  since  flour  furnishes  all  that  is  necessary 
for  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  the  yeast.  The  ad- 
dition of  any  or  all  superfluous  things  will  cause  unneces- 
sary labor,  and  be  found  worse  than  useless. 

The  amount  of  flour  which  it  is  necessary  to  mix  with 
a  certain  amount  of  liquid  to  make  dough  of  the  proper 
consistency  cannot  be  given  by  either  weight  or  measure, 
without  knowing  the  special  brand  of  flour  to  be  used, 
as  the  quantity  varies  according  to  the  quality,  because 
flours  differ  so  greatly  in  their  ability  to  absorb  and 
retain  liquids.  There  is,  however,  an  unerring  rule  for 
determining  the  amount  of  liquid  necessary  in  using  any 
given  flour.  When  a  sufficient  amount  of  flour  has  been 
added  to  the  liquid  measured  out,  the  dough  will  be  of 
such  consistency  that  it  can  be  handled  without  flour, 
and  will  not  adhere  to  the  hands  or  to  the  moulding 
board. 

Of  patent  flour,  one  quart  of  liquid  will  require  from 
three  pounds  and  ten  ounces  to  five  pounds,  or  from  three 
and  one-half  quarts  to  five  quarts,  of  flour,  and  the 
amount  of  dough  formed  from  these  proportions  of  liquid 
and  flour  will  make  four  medium-sized  loaves,  or  about 
five  pounds  of  good  bread. 

Stirred  bread,  or  bread  in  which  the  manipulations  are 
performed  wholly  with  a  spoon,  stirring  and  cutting  the 
ingredients  together,  and  shaping  the  loaf  with  a 
knife,  does  not  yield  the  best  results.  Nearly  all  the 


BREAD  MAKING.  103 

work  may  be  done  with  utensils,  using  the  hands  in  con- 
tact with  the  dough  very  little,  and  good  bread  produced. 

A  loaf  of  bread,  when  properly  baked,  is  cooked  en- 
tirely through,  and  has  a  crust  of  a  chestnut-brown  color 
all  over  the  top,  bottom,  sides,  and  ends.  In  order  to 
accomplish  this,  the  loaf  must  be  small  enough  so  that 
the  center  can  be  cooked  without  rendering  the  crust 
too  thick  or  too  brown. 

The  pan  which  will  best  serve  this  purpose  measures 
four  inches  across  the  bottom,  is  three  and  one-half 
inches  in  height,  and  is  as  long  as  the  oven  will  admit. 
Russia  iron  is  the  best  material  for  pans.  Sheet-iron 
will  give  equally  good  results  in  bakfing,  but  it,  is  dif- 
ficult to  keep  in  order,  as  it  rusts  easily.  Tin  does  not 
give  satisfactory  results. 

Bread  which  is  not  sufficiently  baked  deteriorates  rap- 
idly, and  will,  in  a  few  days,  become  unpalatable,  if  not 
unfit  for  use;  while  bread  which  is  perfectly  baked  will 
keep  in  a  good  condition  a  much  longer  time,  simply  be- 
coming dry  and  hard,  while  that  which  is  imperfectly 
baked  becomes  moldy,  ropy,  and  may  have  a  bad  odor, 
because  the  spores  of  mold  and  the  bacteria  have  not 
been  killed. 

The  temperature  of  the  oven  at  the  time  the  bread  is 
put  into  it  should  be  about  375°  F.,  with  an  increasing 
heat  during  the  first  few  minutes.  At  this  temperature, 
rolls  will  bake  in  twenty-five  or  thirty  minutes.  A  loaf 
of  the  size  and  shape  described  above,  in  fifty  to  sixty 
minutes.  A  loaf  of  bread  sufficiently  baked  will  emit  a 
hollow  sound  when  tapped  on  the  bottom.  As  soon  as 
the  loaf  comes  from  the  oven,  it  should  be  removed  from 
the  pan  and  brushed  lightly  all  over  with  milk  or  fat,  and 
placed  uncovered  in  such  a  position  as  will  expose  most  of 
the  surface  to  the  fresh  air.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to 
come  in  contact  with  anything  which  may  impart  to  it 
an  unpleasant  odor.  When  cold  it  should  be  placed  in 


104  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

a  tin  box  or  similar  receptacle,  covered,  and  kept  in  a 
cool,  dry  place.  It  is  not  well  to  wrap  bread  in  cloths, 
as  it  has  better  flavor  when  simply  kept  in  a  clean  vessel. 

The  best  utensils  for  bread  making  are  an  earthen 
bowl,  a  wooden  spoon,  and  a  medium-sized  moulding 
board,  with  cleats  to  prevent  moving  on  the  table.  A 
wooden  spoon  is  more  noiseless  and  more  easily  handled 
than  one  of  metal.  The  earthen  bowl  is  easily  kept  clean 
and  in  good  condition.  It  is  easy  to  keep  the  dough  at  an 
even  temperature,  while  rising,  in  such  a  bowl. 

Many  people  are  seriously  disturbed  for  hours  by  eat- 
ing sour  bread  in  which  a  long  time  between  first  set- 
ting the  dough  and  baking  has  allowed  acetic  and  other 
undesirable  ferments  to  act  in  producing  acids  and  other 
deleterious  substances  in  the  bread.  Whole  families  are 
made  dyspeptic  by  poor  bread  making.  But  the  lack  of 
good  flavor,  and  the  presence  of  acids  which  disturb 
digestion  are  far  greater  injuries  than  the  mere  loss  of 
food  nutrients. 

Experiments  have  proven  that  yeast  formed  in  con- 
tact with  air  having  the  maximum  of  free  oxygen  that 
it  can  assimilate  is  fresher  and  is  possessed  of  greater 
vital  activity  than  that  which  has  been  formed  with  an 
insufficiency  of  air.  In  manufactories  of  yeast,  this  fact 
is  taken  advantage  of.  The  saccharine  worts,  after  the 
addition  of  yeast,  are  left  to  themselves  in  shallow  vats 
of  large  superficial  area,  that  the  air  may  act  upon 
them.  Under  such  conditions,  the  yeast  develops  and 
multiplies  rapidly.  The  white  froth  which  soon  covers 
the  surface  of  the  fermenting  liquid  is  skimmed  off  into 
vats  of  cold  water,  allowed  to  settle  to  the  bottom,  the 
water  pumped  off,  the  contents  of  the  vat  drained,  and 
by  a  series  of  manipulations  it  is  reduced  to  masses  of 
the  size  and  form  known  in  the  market  as  "compressed 
yeast.''  The  yeast  is  in  a  state  of  vigorous  growth  ac- 
quired under  the  influence  of  free  oxygen,  since  all  the 


BREAD  MAKING.  105 

manipulations  are  made  in  contact  with  air,  and  the  mass 
is  impregnated  more  or  less  with  oxygen.  The  yeast 
immediately  seizes  upon  this  gas,  and  acquires  a  state 
of  freshness  and  activity  which  renders  it  valuable  as  a 
ferment. 

The  fact  that  compressed  yeast  is  expensive  and  spoils 
readily  is  sometimes  made  an  objection  to  its  use.  If 
kept  where  very  cold,  it  will  keep  in  good  condition  a 
week  or  more  (if  fresh  when  procured),  and  when  prop- 
erly manipulated  it  never  fails  to  made  good  bread  with 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  labor,  with  no  worry, 
and  no  loss  of  material. 

This  yeast  keeps  better  when  removed  from  the  tinfoil 
wrapper,  put  in  a  glass  jar,  and  covered  with  cold  water. 
The  water  should  be  poured  off  each  day,  and  fresh 
water  put  on.  Dry  yeast  cakes  may  be  kept  longer  than 
compressed  yeast,  but  in  time  they  also  lose  their  vi- 
tality. 

Many  people  pay  a  high  price  for  coarse  flours,  be- 
lieving that  they  obtain  more  protein  and  mineral  matter 
in  these  than  in  the  finer  flours.  Late  scientific  inves- 
tigations lead  to  the  belief  that  not  all  so-called  whole- 
wheat flour  is  genuine. 

*"The  bread  made  from  the  imitation  whole-wheat 
flours  contained  less  protein  than  bread  made  from  the  pat- 
ent and  bakers'  grades  of  flour,  while  the  bread  made 
from  true  whole-wheat  flours — that  is,  flours  from  which 
none  of  the  germ  or  other  parts  of  the  wheat  had  been  re- 
moved— contained  about  one  per  cent,  more  protein  than 
bread  made  from  ordinary  flour.  No  conclusions,  how- 

*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations,    Bulletin  No.  67. 

NOTE — For  further  information  on  bread  and  bread  making 
see  (1)U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  67; 
(2)  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  112;  (3)  Universi- 
ty of  Minnesota,  Agr.  Exp.  Station,  Chemical  Division,  Bulle- 
tin No.  54;  (4)  The  Science  &  Art  of  Bread  Making — Jago; 
(5)  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations.  Bulletin  No.  34. 


106  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

ever,  as  to  the  relative  nutritive  value  of  whole  wheat 
and  ordinary  flours  can  be  drawn  from  the  figures  given. 
The  rye  bread  contained  slightly  less  protein  than  ordi- 
nary wheat  bread,  while  the  corn  bread  contained  less 
than  the  rye." 
Potato  Yeast. 

Take  six  large  potatoes,  pare,  slice,  and  boil  in  one 
quart  of  water.  Soak  three  dry  yeast  cakes  in  one 
cup  of  water.  When  the  potatoes  are  done,  mash  through 
a  colander,  and  then  add  the  water  (one  quart),  one  and 
one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  and  two  and  one-half  ta- 
blespoonfuls  of  sugar.  When  cool,  add  the  dissolved 
yeast  cakes,  set  away  in  a  temperature  of  about  75°  F., 
and  let  stand  twelve  hours,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  The 
water  used  should  be  that  in  which  the  potatoes  were 
cooked,  with  enough  added  to  make  a  quart. 
Home-Made  Yeast, 

Stir  one-half  pint  of  flour  to  a  smooth  batter  with  one- 
half  pint  of  cold  water.  Over  this  pour  one  quart  of 
boiling  water,  pouring  slowly  and  stirring  rapidly.  Place 
over  the  fire,  and  cook  four  or  five  minutes.  Add  two 
level  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  and  one  of  salt.  When 
cooled  to  75°  F.,  add  one  ounce  of  compressed  yeast,  or 
one  pint  of  home-made  yeast.  Keep  as  nearly  75°  F.  as 
possible  for  twenty-four  hours,  stirring  down  once  in  four 
or  five  hours.  Keep  in  a  glass  jar  in  a  cool  place.  The 
jar  must  be  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded  before  put- 
ting fresh  yeast  into  it. 

Bread  with  Home-Made  Yeast. 

Quick  Process. — One  cup  of  good  home-made  yeast, 
one  cup  of  milk  and  water  (one-half  cup  of  each)  and 
two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  Have  the  temperature  of 
liquid  and  flour  75°  F.  and  make  into  a  dough  stiff 
enough  to  handle  without  flour,  let  rise  three  hours,  or 
until  double  in  size,  keeping  always  at  75°  F.,  and  when 
risen,  mould  into  loaves,  let  rise  one  hour  and  bake. 


BREAD  MAKING.  107 

Bake  a  small  loaf  forty-five  minutes,  or  a  larger  one 
one  hour. 

Compressed  Yeast  Bread  No.    1. 

To  make  bread  with  compressed  yeast,  break  a  one- 
half  ounce  cake  of  compressed  yeast  into  small  pieces 
in  a  cup,  and  cover  with  cold  water.  Place  in  a  bowl 
one  pint  of  liquid, — one-half  milk  and  one-half  water. 
Make  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  75°  F.  Into  this 
liquid  put  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  stir  in  a  cup 
of  sifted  flour;  stir  the  yeast  and  water  in  the  cup,  and 
pour  into  this;  put  in  another  cup  of  flour,  and  beat  it 


Bread  Pans,    Roll  Pans,    Stick  Pans. 

well.  Continue  to  stir  in  flour,  keeping  sides  of  bowl 
clean,  and  kneading  with  the  spoon  until  nearly  stiff 
enough.  Then  bathe  the  hands,  wipe  them  dry,  flour 
the  board,  and  knead  the  dough  until  it  ceases  to  adhere 
to  the  hands  or  board  when  no  flour  is  used.  Grease  the 
bowl  with  some  nice-flavored  fat  and  treat  the  top  of 
dough  after  putting  into  the  bowl  in  the  same  way. 
Cover  the  bowl  with  a  white  cloth,  set  on  the  kitchen  table 
and  allow  the  dough  to  rise.  See  that  the  air  is  not  cooler 
or  warmer  than  75°  F.  Let  the  dough  rise  three  hours, 
or  until  it  is  double  its  original  size,  knead  well  and  mold 
into  loaves,  put  in  greased  pans,  grease  over  the  top,  let 


108  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

rise  one  hour,  when  it  will  again  double  its  size  if  prop- 
erly manipulated,  and  bake. 
Compressed  Yeast  Bread  No.  2. 

Put  into  an  earthen 'bowl  one  pint  of  water  luke-warm 
in  winter,  but'  cold  in  summer,  and  stir  in  flour  until  a 
batter  is  formed,  then  stir  in  one  one-half  ounce  cake  of 
compressed  yeast  and  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  See 
that  the  mixture  is  at  75°  F.,  and  let  stand  at  that  tempera- 
ture for  two  hours ;  then  stir  in  one  pint  of  sweet  milk, 
keeping  temperature  at  75°  F.,  and  finish  exactly  as  in 
compressed  yeast  bread  No.  i.  This  formula  makes  four 
loaves  of  bread. 

Liquid  Yeast  Bread. 

Put  into  an  earthen  bowl  one  medium-sized,  well- 
boiled,  finely-mashed  potato,  and  pour  over  it,  stirring 
meanwhile,  one  pint  of  liquid,  consisting  of  the  water  in 
which  the  potato  was  boiled,  plus  enough  boiling  water 
to  make  a  pint.  Into  this  stir  one  cup  of  flour,  let  stand 
until  it  cools  to  75°  F.,  then  add  one  cup  of  liquid  yeast, 
stir  well,  cover,  and  let  stand  for  six  hours,  or  until 
light.  Then  put  into  it  one  pint  of  milk,  and  flour  enough 
to  make  a  stiff  dough,  and  finish  as  above. 
Bread  with  Potato  Yeast. 

To  one  quart  of  liquid,  one-half  milk  and  one-half  wa- 
ter, use  one  cup  of  yeast.  Put  in  flour  enough  to  make 
a  medium  stiff  batter.  Add  to  the  liquid  four  level  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  salt,  beat  the  batter  until  it  seems  light,  add 
the  yeast,  and  beat  well  again.  The  temperature  should 
be  the  same  as  for  other  bread.  Set  the  sponge  out  of 
a  draft  in  a  temperature  of  75°  F.  In  three  hours  it 
should  be  light  and  ready  to  mix  up  stiff.  Let  rise  again 
until  light,  and  make  into  loaves.  Let  rise  another  hour, 
and  bake. 

Or,  it  may  be  made  by  using  equal  quantities  of  yeast 
and  liquid,  then  proceed  as  with  compressed  yeast  bread 
No.  I. 


BREAD  MAKING.  109 

Rye  Bread. 

To  make  rye  bread,  use  one-half  rye  and  one-half 
white  flour,  and  proceed  as  for  white  bread,  except  add 
one  teaspoonful  of  sugar  for  every  pint  of  liquid  used. 

Salt  Rising  Bread. 

Pour  one  cup  of  boiling  milk  over  two  level  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  salt  and  one-half  cup  of  granulated  cornmeal 
(either  white  or  yellow  meal).  Set  in  a  warm  place  over 
night.  In  the  morning  add  one  cup  of  luke-warm  water. 
Stir  with  a  wooden  spoon,  and  add  flour  until  very  stiff. 
Wash  the  hands,  turn  the  dough  onto  the  floured  mould- 
ing board,  and  knead  in  flour  until  the  dough  does  not 
adhere  to  either  the  hands  or  the  board.  Place  in  a 
greased  bowl,  brush  the  top  of  the  loaf  with  butter, 
cover  with  a  clean  white  cloth,  and  set  in  a  warm  place, 
Let  rise  until  light  (that  is,  has  doubled  in  size),  knead 
into  loaves,  let  rise  again,  and  bake  same  as  compressed 
yeast  bread. 

Graham  Bread  with  Compressed  Yeast. 

Make  same  as  white  bread,  except  use  one-half  white 
flour  and  one-half  graham  flour.  To  one  pint  of  liquid 
use  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar. 

In  making  either  graham  or  whole-wheat  bread,  it  is 
better  to  use  at  least  one-third  as  much  white  flour  as 
dark. 

Whole  Wheat  Bread. 

Make  the  same  as  white  bread,  except  use  whole  wheat 
flour  and  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar  to  one  pint  of  liquid. 
In  making  whole  wheat  or  graham  bread,  make  the 
dough  a  little  less  stiff  than  white  bread  dough.  Whole 
wheat  and  graham  require  longer  baking  than  white 
bread,  if  the  loaves  are  the  same  size.  The  loaves  may  be 
made  smaller  and  baked  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

Federal  Bread  (For  Breakfast  or  Tea). 

Use  one  pint  of  milk,  one  cake  of  compressed  yeast, 


110  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

two  eggs,  and  one  generous  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Mix 
same  as  bread,  except  soft  as  it  can  possibly  be  handled, 
having  first  poured  the  hot  milk  over  the  well-beaten 
eggs,  and  allowed  them  to  cool.  When  it  has  risen  about 
four  hours,  mix  in  two  generous  tablespoonfuls  of  but- 
ter, form  into  loaves,  let  rise,  and  bake.  While  still  hot, 
cut  into  three  parts  lengthwise,  butter  generously,  re- 
place in  sections,  and  serve. 

Buns. 

Beat  together  three  eggs  until  well  broken  and  mixed. 
Then  pour  over  them,  stirring  constantly  and  pouring 
slowly,  one  pint  of  sweet  milk,  boiling  hot,  add  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  granulated  sugar,  let  cool,  stir  in  some 
flour,  then,  if  cooled  to  75°  R,  add  one  cake  of  com- 
pressed yeast,  mixed  with  a  little  water,  and  one  level 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Now  stir  in  flour  enough  to  make 
a  dough  stiff  enough  that  it  may  be  kneaded,  with 
care,  put  into  a  buttered  bowl,  and  let  rise  three  hours. 
The  temperature  should  be  75°  F.  After  rising  three 
hours,  work  in  one-half  cup  of  butter,  knead,  and  set 
to  rise  for  two  or  three  hours,  or  until  light.  Then  make 
into  buns,  let  rise  one  hour,  and  bake. 

Parker  House  Rolls. 

Heat  one  pint  of  sweet  milk  to  75°  F.,  then  stir  in 
one  tablespoonful  of  sugar  and  one  level  teaspoonful  of 
salt  and  a  little  flour;  add  one  cake  of  compressed 
yeast  mixed  with  a  little  cold  water,  knead  in  flour  until 
of  the  consistency  of  bread  dough,  have  the  temperature 
75°  F.,  and  let  rise  three  hours,  when  it  should  be  doubled 
in  size.  Then  put  in  one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  mix 
well,  let  rise  again ;  when  light,  roll  on  the  board  until  one- 
half  inch  thick,  then  lift  from  the  board  and  let  shrink 
back  all  it  will,  and  cut  with  a  round  or  oval  cutter. 
Press  the  thumb  across  the  middle,  and  fold  over  like  a 
turnover,  having  first  brushed  the  edges  with  butter.  Let 
rise  one  hour,  and  bake. 


BREAD  MAKING.  HI 

Loaf  Cake. 

For  two  cakes,  take  from  the  bread  dough,  when  per- 
fectly light  and  ready  for  the  last  moulding,  three  cups  of 
dough,  to  which  add  two  cups  of  white  sugar,  one  cup 
of  butter,  two  well-beaten  eggs,  one  cup  of  chopped  rai- 
sins, one  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  and  a  half  teaspoonful 
of  soda.  Place  the  dough  with  other  ingredients  in  an 
earthen  bowl,  and  work  with  the  hands  until  it  becomes 
quite  soft,  then  place  in  a  well-buttered  baking  dish  lined 
with  white  paper.  Bake  one  and  one-half  hours  in  a  slow 
oven. 

Coffee  Cake. 

Take  some  bun  dough  and  roll  until  about  one  inch 
thick,  spread  with  butter,  sprinkle  bountifully  with  su- 
gar and  powdered  cinnamon,  let  rise  two  and  one-half 
hours,  then  bake  in  an  oven  a  little  cooler  than  for  bread, 
and,  when  nearly  done,  dot  with  cooked  fruit  or  jelly, 
or  dust  generously  with  sugar  and  powdered  cinnamon, 
and  dot  with  butter. 

Bun  Cake. 

Use  bun  dough  as  on  page  1 10,  and  when  it  nas 
risen  the  second  time  roll  about  half  an  inch  thick. 
Spread  one-half  thinly  with  melted  butter,  and  sprinkle 
lightly  with  English  currants  and  raisins  chopped  and 
seeded.  Fold  over,  let  rise  and  bake  same  as  coffee  cake. 

THIN  DOUGHS. 

When  a  soapstone  griddle  is  used,  it  needs  no  greas- 
ing. To  grease  other  griddles,  cut  a  piece  of  very  fat  salt 
pork  about  an  inch  and  a  half  square,  and  leave  the  rind 
on  it.  Fix  this  firmly  on  a  fork,  provide  yourself  with 
a  limber  knife,  and  place  a  pie  tin  where  these  can 
be  conveniently  placed  on  it.  Have  a  holder  suitable 
for  moving  the  griddle  about  on  the  range,  and  a  cle.an 
cloth  for  wiping  the  griddle.  The  griddle  must  be  freed 
from  all  bits  each  time  it  is  used,  and  wiped  to  remove 


112  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

crumbs.  Do  not  use  the  dish  cloth  for  this.  When 
greasing  the  griddle,  be  careful  to  grease  only  the  por- 
tion on  which  the  cake  will  lie  because  more  space  than 
this  cannot  be  used,  and  the  fat  will  burn  on  the  griddle, 
filling  the  room  with  unnecessary  smoke.  When  cakes 
are  mixed  with  water,  add  a  little  sugar,  as  this  will  aid 
in  making  a  nice  brown.  When  cakes  are  ready  to  turn  on 
the  griddle,  the  upper  surface  will  be  full  of  small  bub- 
bles, and  the  under  surface  a  beautiful  brown.  Large 
bubbles  should  not  rise  at  once  to  the  surface  of  the 
griddle  cake,  as  this  indicates  too  hot  a  griddle,  and  the 
cakes  will  be  inferior  in  flavor  and  appearance. 

Soda  and  Baking  Powder — How  to  Use. 

Most  quick  breads  are  made  light  with  either  baking 
powder  or  sour  milk  and  soda,  but  eggs  are  sometimes 
used  for  this  purpose.  Both  soda  and  baking  powder  effer- 
vesce when  a  liquid  is  added.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  to 
mix  either  soda  or  baking  powder  well  with  a  small  amount 
of  the  flour  to  be  used.  By  so  doing  one  may  save  as  much 
as  possible  of  the  power  which  the  soda  or  baking  powder 
has  to  make  the  dough  light,  because,  being  mixed  with 
the  flour  when  the  liquid  comes  in  contact  with  it, 
the  bubbles  formed  are  imprisoned  in  the  dough,  in- 
stead of  escaping  into  the  air.  The  heat  of  the  griddle 
or  oven  has  much  to  do  with  the  lightness  of  the  finished 
product.  If  the  heat  is  too  great,  the  air  or  gas  bubbles 
expand  rapidly,  and  the  walls  break,  making  large  holes, 
instead  of  a  fine-grained  bread  or  cake.  Too  hot  an 
oven  will  cause  great  and  rapid  expansion,  but  the  crust 
formed  over  the  top  is  too  heavy  for  the  weak  cell  walls 
below  to  hold  up,  and  the  article  falls,  as  is  often  seen 
in  sponge  cakes  and  omelets.  If  the  oven  is  just  the  right 
heat,  the  cell  walls  and  crust  over  the  top  will  harden 
just  when  the  cells  are  expanded  to  their  limit,  and  the 
result  is  a  light  feathery  mass,  which  remains  so  when 
cold.  Too  cool  an  oven  will  give  disastrous  results, 


BREAD  MAKING.  113 

because  the  cell  walls  do  -not  harden  soon  enough  to  pre- 
vent breaking,  but  too  much  heat  is  more  frequently 
used  than  too  little.  The  greatest  heat  should  be  at  the 
bottom  until  the  article  is  fully  risen,  but  sides  and  top 
should  be  thoroughly  browned  when  done. 

In  using  soda,  use  one-half  a  level  teaspoonful  to  one 
cup  of  pleasantly  acid  milk. 

In  using  baking  powder,  use  one  level  teaspoonful  to 
one  level  cupful  of  flour,  for  most  doughs;  but  for  bis- 
cuits, dumplings  and  griddle  cakes,  use  one  and  one-fourth 
teaspoonfuls  to  one  cup  of  flour. 

Popovers — For  Home  Work, 

One-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  cup  flour,  one  cup 
sweet  milk,  one  egg,  or  one-fourth  cup  of  egg  white. 
Put  half  the  milk  into  a  small  bowl,  and  add  the  egg 
and  salt.  Stir  in  flour  until  about  right  consistency  for 
griddle  cakes,  then  beat  about  ten  minutes  with  dover 
beater,  add  the  remainder  of  the  milk,  and  having  filled 
the  muffin  tins  half  full  of  the  mixture,  bake  in  an  oven, 
same  heat  as  for  bread,  forty-five  minutes. 

Popovers — For  Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  milk,  one-half  cup  of  flour,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  egg.  Beat  a  whole  egg  just  enough  to  mix 
so  that  a  tablespoonful  can  be  taken  up.  Put  into  a 
teacup  in  which  a  dover  beater  will  turn,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  egg,  one-fourth  cup  of  milk,  all  the  flour, 
a  bit  of  salt,  and  beat  well  with  the  dover  beater.  Stir 
in  the  remainder  of  the  milk  and  bake  as  above. 

Waffles. 

One  egg,  well  beaten,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  milk, 
flour  enough  to  make  a  batter  same  consistency  as  for  pan- 
cakes, one  level  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Cook  on  waffle  irons. 


114 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


French  Pancakes. 

Three  eggs,  one  cup  of  milk,  half  a  cup  of  flour,  half 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  olive  oil.  Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  until 
thick  and  lemon  colored.  Mix  the  sugar  and  salt  with 
the  flour,  and  add  the  milk  and  flour  alternately,  same  as 
in  making  cake,  using  twice  as  much  milk  as  flour  each 
time,  and  thoroughly  incorporating  the  one  before  adding 
the  next.  When  these  are  in,  stir  the  olive  oil  into  the 
mixture,  and  fold  the  well-beaten  egg  whites  in  carefully. 


Waffle  Iron. 

Bake  same  as  griddle  cakes,  butter,  dust  with  powdered 
sugar,  roll  up,  and  serve  hot.  Clarified  butter  may  be 
used  instead  of  olive  oil.  • 

Wheat  Griddle  Cakes. 

Three-fourths  cup  of  sweet  milk  (generous),  one  egg, 
separated,  one  tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  one-fourth 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  level  cup  of  bread  flour.  Of 
pastry  flour  use  a  little  more.  Put  the  yolk  of  egg,  salt, 
and  one-fourth  cup  of  milk  in  the  bowl,  add  one-fourth 
cup  of  flour,  and  stir  until  smooth,  using  egg  beater  if 


BREAD  MAKING.  115 

necessary.  Add  a  little  milk,  and  when  thoroughly  mixed 
add  a  little  flour,  and  thoroughly  incorporate  that,  and 
so  continue  until  the  flour  and  milk  are  all  used.  Beat 
in  the  butter,  then  fold  in  the  beaten  whites. 

Griddle  Cakes  with  Baking  Powder. 

Three-fourths  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  tablespoonful 
of  melted  butter,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  level 
cup  of  flour,  and  one  generous  teaspoonful  of  baking- 
powder.  Put  together  same  as  above,  leaving  the 
egg  out  altogether,  and  save  out  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour.  Mix  the  baking  powder  with  this,  and  stir  in 
last,  beating  well. 

Griddle  Cakes  with  Sour  Milk, 

Three-fourths  cup  of  sour  milk,  one  tablespoonful  of 
melted  butter,  one- fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  scant  one- 
half  teaspoonful  soda,  three-fourths  level  cup  of  bread 
flour.  Mix  soda  with  a  little  flour,  and  beat  in  after 
the  flour  is  used.  Otherwise  put  together  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  one  with  baking  powder  and  sweet  milk. 

Blueberry  Griddle  Cakes. 

Make  same  as  white-flour  griddle  cakes,  and  add  one- 
half  cup  of  blueberries  (fresh).  Before  adding  the  blue- 
berries, roll  them  in  flour. 

Whole  Wheat  or  Graham  Flour  Griddle  Cakes. 

Make  same  as  the  ones  with  white  flour,  except  use 
one  teaspoonful  of  sugar  to  each  cup  of  flour. 

Graham  Griddle  Cakes-Class  Work. 

One-fourth  cup  of  flour  (half  white  and  half  graham), 
one  tablespoonful  of  well  beaten  egg,  one-fourth  cup  of 
sour  milk,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  soda,  (sifted  with 
flour)  and  the  same  of  salt,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of 
sugar,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  melted  butter.  Put  flour 
and  milk  in  alternately  and  beat  well. 


116  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Wheat  and  Graham  Muffins  with  Sour  Milk. 

One-half  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one  and  one-half 
cups  of  flour,  one  cup  of  sour  milk,  one-half  teaspoonful 
soda,  one-half  teaspoonful  salt.  Take  out  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  the  flour,  put  the  butter  and  salt  in  the 
milk,  add  one-half  the  flour,  and  stir  until  smooth. 
Add  the  rest  a  little  at  a  time,  beating  between.  Lastly 
add  the  soda  mixed  in  the  two  tablespoon fuls  of  flour 
saved  out.  Be  sure  that  the  soda  is  mixed,  then  beat 
it  in  very  thoroughly.  Have  the  oven  hotter  than  for 
bread,  and  bake  half  an  hour  or  more. 

Wheat  and  Graham  Muffins  with  Sour  Milk.— Class  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  sour  milk,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of 
soda,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-eighth  table- 
spoonful  of  butter,  one-fourth  cup  and  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  flour.  Make  graham  muffins  the  same  except  add 
one  teaspoonful  of  sugar. 

Whole  Wheat  Muffins  with  Sour  Milk. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  whole  wheat  flour,  one  level 
teaspoonful  of  sugar,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  butter,  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  cup  of  milk  just  pleasantly  acid, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Take  out  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  the  flour,  and  put  the  sugar,  butter,  one  cup  of 
flour,  and  the  milk  together,  and  beat  thoroughly.  Add 
the  remainder  of  the  flour,  a  little  at  a  time,  beating  well. 
Lastly  add  the  soda,  well  stirred  in  the  flour,  and  beat  it  in. 
Bake  same  as  above. 

Whole  Wheat  or  Graham  Muffins  with  Baking  Powder. 

One  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  flour, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt>  one  level  teaspoonful  of 
sugar,  one  generous  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  one 
tablespoonful  of  soft  butter.  Put  the  milk,  sugar,  salt, 
and  butter  together,  add  flour  enough  to  make  a  smooth 
batter,  and  beat  well.  Put  the  baking  powder  in  a 


BREAD  MAKING.  117 

tablespoon ful  of  flour  and  set  aside,  put  in  the  rest  of 
the  flour  a  little  at  a  time,  as  in  cake,  beating  well  be- 
tween, and  lastly  beat  in  the  flour  with  baking  powder, 
and  bake  half  an  hour  in  an  oven  a  little  hotter  than  for 
bread. 

Hygienic  Gems. 

One  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  flour 
(graham  or  whole  wheat),  one  level  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  sugar.  Have  the  materials 
very  cold.  Mix  and  put  at  once  into  hissing  hot  iron 
gem  pans,  and  bake  in  an  oven  hotter  than  for  bread. 

Hygienic  Muffins. 

One  cup  sweet  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  flour 
(graham  or  whole  wheat),  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one 
egg,  separated.  Put  the  milk,  the  egg  yolk,  and  salt  in 
a  bowl,  put  in  about  one-half  the  flour,  and  stir  it  well, 
mix  in  the  remainder,  and  fold  in  the  beaten  white.  Bake 
in  muffin  pans  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Wheat  Muffins  with  White  Flour  and  Baking  Powder, 

One  and  one-half  cups  flour,  one  cup  sweet  milk,  one 
generous  teaspoonful  baking  powder,  one-half  table- 
spoonful  butter.  Save  out  a  little  of  the  flour  to  mix  with 
the  baking  powder,  put  the  milk  and  butter  into  the  mix- 
ing bowl,  add  one  cup  of  the  flour,  and  beat  vigorously; 
then  add  the  rest  a  little  at  a  time,  beating  between,  as 
in  making  cake;  lastly  put  in  the  flour  with  the  baking 
powder,  and  beat  until  thoroughly  mixed.  Bake  in  an 
oven  a  little  hotter  than  for  bread. 

Rice  Muffins. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  add  one  cup  of  rice  cooked, 
cooled,  and  broken  into  separate  grains  with  a  fork. 

Sally  Lunns. 

Milk,  one  cup;  salt,  one-fourth  teaspoonful;  eggs,  one; 
sugar,  one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls ;  butter,  one-half 


118  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

tablespoonf ul ;  flour,  one  pint ;  baking  powder,  two  gener- 
ous teaspoonfuls.  Mix  all  together,  putting  the  baking 
powder  in  a  little  flour.  Lastly,  turn  onto  the  kneading 
board  sprinkled  with  flour,  and  knead  into  shape.  Bake 
in  a  loaf  in  an  oven  a  little  hotter  than  for  bread. 

Whole  Wheat  Muffins  Raised  with  Egg. 

One  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  egg,  one  and  one-half  cups 
of  flour  (whole  wheat),  one  tablespoonful  of  melted  but- 
ter, one  level  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  one-half  teaspoonful 
of  salt.  Put  the  sugar,  salt,  flour,  butter,  and  milk  to- 
gether, and  beat  thoroughly,  then  beat  in  with  the  spoon 
the  yolk  of  the  egg,  which  has  been  beaten  in  a  small 
bowl  with  an  egg  beater  until  thick.  Lastly  fold  in  the 
beaten  white,  and  bake  in  an  oven  same  heat  as  for  bread. 

Batters  made  of  whole  wheat  and  graham  flours  require 
more  beating  than  those  from  white  flour. 

Muffins  with  White  Flour. 

One  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  bread 
flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  soft  butter,  one  egg,  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Beat  the  egg  yolk  light.  Put  the 
milk,  salt,  flour,  and  butter  with  it,  and  stir  and  beat  to- 
gether. Lastly  fold  in  the  white,  beaten  stiff.  Bake  in 
about  the  same  heat  as  for  bread. 
Biscuits  with  Sour  Milk. 

These  are  best  shortened  with  sour  cream,  but  if  you 
have  not  that,  use  one  cup  of  sour  milk  or  buttermilk. 
and  two  cups  of  flour  plus  enough  to  roll  the  dough  on 
the  board.  Two  tablespoonfuls  fat  rubbed  into  the  flour, 
one-half  level  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-half  level  teaspoon- 
ful of  soda.  Proceed  as  for  baking  powder  biscuits  (p. 
119).  Sift  soda  with  flour. 

Soda  Biscuits — For  Class  Work. 

One-fourth  cup  of  sour  milk,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of 
soda  mixed  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one-half  tea- 
spoonful  of  fat  rubbed  into  one  cup  of  flour,  one- 


BREAD  MAKING.  119 

eighth  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Roll  one-fourth  inch  thick, 
and  bake  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  in  an  oven  same  tem- 
perature as  for  bread. 

Baking  Powder  Biscuits. 

Two  cups  flour  (winter  wheat  more  delicate),  one  cup 
milk,  four  level,  or  two  generous,  teaspoonfuls  baking 
powder,  one  teaspoonful  salt,  two  tablespoonfuls  butter. 
Rub  or  put  butter  in  the  flour  with  a  fork.  Take  out  one- 
fourth  of  a  cup  of  flour  to  mix  with  the  baking  powder. 
When  the  butter  is  in,  mix  the  flour  containing  the  baking 
powder  with  the  rest,  and  mix  milk  and  flour  together 
with  as  little  stirring  as  possible.  Flour  the  board  gener- 
ously and  knead  as  little  as  will  make  smooth.  Keep 
well  floured,  roll  to  one-half  inch  thick,  brush  off  surplus 
flour,  cut  out,  and  bake  in  an  oven  hot  as  can  be  to  bake 
them  half  an  hour  without  burning.  Much  depends  on 
handling  little  and  baking  right.  They  must  be  very 
soft,  and  stirred  and  kneaded  as  little  as  will  put  them 
into  shape.  Make  meat-pie  crust  in  the  same  way. 

Baking  Powder  Biscuit.— Class  Work. 

One-fourth  cup  flour,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  salt,  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  fat,  one-fourth  teaspobnful  baking 
powder,  generous,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water  or  milk. 

BAKING  IN  DIFFERENT  OVENS. 

In  order  to  be  successful  in  baking,  one  must  study 
the  oven  and  know  all  its  peculiarities.  If  it  is  hotter  on 
the  side  next  the  fire  box,  procure  a  piece  of  tin,  bend 
it  into  the  required  shape,  and  wire  into  place  as  a  pro- 
tection. If  it  is  too  hot  on  the  bottom,  set  the  iron  shelf 
on  the  bottom,  or  put  a  layer  of  sand  an  inch  deep  in  the 
oven,  or  use  some  other  means  to  raise  the  article  a  little 
from  the  bottom. 

An  article  of  food  to  be  risen  in  the  oven,  such  as 
muffins,  biscuits,  etc.,  should  begin  to  bake  on  the  bottom 
first,  because  if  baked  on  the  top  before  the  bottom,  a 


120  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

crust  is  formed  which  is  apt  to  weigh  down  and  make 
the  food  heavy,  instead  of  light  and  fluffy,  as  it  should  be. 
To  prevent  too  great  heat  on  the  top  of  the  oven,  sprinkle 
a  little  sand  or  some  ashes  over  the  top,  or  lay  a  piece  of 
tin  or  sheet  iron  to  fit  on  the  iron  shelf  inside  of  the  oven. 
When  a  range  has  been  used  for  a  time,  it  often  ceases 
to  be  hot  enough  on  the  bottom  and  top.  In  that  case, 
brush  the  ashes  off  from  the  top,  and  scrape  them  from 
the  bottom  with  the  iron  which  comes  with  every  range 
for  that  purpose. 

The  following  general  rules  will  aid  in  learning  to  use 
ovens  of  different  kinds  of  stoves  and  ranges : 

In  a  hotel  range,  there  is  a  fire  between  two  ovens. 
In  such  ranges,  the  article  to  be  cooked  will  do  best  on 
the  bottom  of  the  oven,  provided  the  fire  is  right  for 
baking,  but  if  the  ranges  have  been  kept  very  hot  for  a 
long  time  in  order  to  keep  kettles  boiling  on  the  top,  the 
ovens  will  become  too  hot,  and  a  grate  will  be  needed. 
In  a  brick  oven,  if  well  regulated  by  use  of  dampers,  food 
will  bake  evenly  in  all  parts  of  the  oven,  except  very  near 
the  fire. 

In  an  ordinary  range  in  the  home,  the  food  will  usually 
bake  best  on  the  bottom  of  the  oven.  In  stoves  which 
have  ovens  above  the  fire,  as  gas,  gasoline,  and  kerosene 
stoves  and  ranges,  the  article  to  be  cooked  should  be 
placed  on  the  grate.  The  heat  in  such  ovens  is  controlled 
by  raising  or  lowering  the  flame,  rather  than  by  the  use 
of  dampers.  When  you  can  control  the  oven,  see  that 
the  fire  is  such  as  to  give  right  heat  when  you  are  ready 
to  use  it;  but  if  you  are  compelled  to  use  the  oven  when 
the  stove  is  fixed  for  something  else,  set  a  pan  of  cold 
water  in  to  cool  it  a  little  before  putting  anything  in  to 
bake.  When  the  water  is  hot,  take  it  out  and  put  in  the 
article  to  be  baked.  If  cold  water  is  put  in  after  the  ar- 
ticle begins  to  bake,  the  heat  is  checked  too  suddenly,  and 
the  loaf  is  prevented  rising  as  it  should.  If  the  hot  water 


BREAD  MAKING.  121 

is  left  in  the  oven,  the  steam  will  prevent  the  crisp  crust 
liked  by  many.  The  oven  door  should  always  be  closed 
gently.  It  is  evident  that  the  jarring  caused  by  careless- 
ness in  this  regard  may  break  the  delicate  cell  walls  which 
surround  the  air  bubbles..  These  cell  walls  are  swollen  by 
the  heat  before  they  become  hardened  and  set,  and  the 
omelet,  cake,  etc.,  will  fall  if  jarred  much. 

How  to  Test  the  Heat  of  the  Oven. 

Expensive  oven  thermometers,  such  as  are  used  on 
brick  ovens  and  large  bakers,  have  a  long  tube  so  that 
the  mercury  extends  far  into  the  oven.  The  dial  on  the 
outside  thus  registers  the  degree  of  heat  at  the  center  of 
the  oven.  The  small,  index  thermometer  used  in  the 
home  range  is  inserted  in  the  oven  door  (by  drilling  a 
hole  through),  and  can  extend  but  a  short  distance  in- 
ward. Such  a  thermometer  is  some  help,  but  must  be 
carefully  used,  as  it  is  intended  to  register  a  certain  num- 
ber of  degrees,  and  when  heated  beyond  that  it  is  apt  to 
be  injured.  It  does  not  extend  into  the  interior  of  the 
oven,  and  so  is  probably  less  accurate  than  the  larger 
ones.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a  benefit  to  the  painstaking  wo- 
man, as  she  can  get  a  good  idea  of  the  heat  of  the  oven 
without  allowing  it  to  escape  by  holding  the  door  open. 

For  angel  cake,  sponge  cake,  pound  cake,  and  kisses, 
have  the  oven  so  cool  that  it  will  require  five  minutes  to 
turn  a  piece  of  white  paper  light  yellow.  For  all  butter 
cakes,  have  the  oven  so  as  to  color  the  same  kind  of 
paper  dark  yellow  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

For  bread,  have  the  oven  hot  enough  so  that  there 
will  be  little  specks  of  brown  on  the  bread  in  ten  minutes. 
For  rolls,  have  the  oven  just  a  little  hotter  than  for  bread. 

For  pastry,  have  the  oven  as  hot  as  you  can  without 
burning  the  article  cooked.  When  the  crust  of  a  pie  is 
cooked,  lower  the  heat  to  allow  the  fruit  to  cook,  if  not 
already  done. 


122  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Heat  of  Oven  for  Breads. 

In  baking  bread  and  rolls,  allow  the  heat  to  increase  a 
little  during1  the  first  twenty  minutes.  After  that,  let  it 
decrease  a  little,  but  keep  a  good  steady  heat  until  the 
bread  is  done.  The  dough  takes  heat  from  the  oven  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  time ;  after  that  the  dough  is  hot, 
and  merely  needs  its  heat  kept  up. 

Baking  powder  biscuits,  soda  biscuits,  and  other  ar- 
ticles of  food  which  are  made  light  by  the  gas  liberated 
on  heating  an  acid  and  an  alkali  in  the  presence  of  moist- 
ure, should  have  an  oven  as  hot  as  possible  without  burn- 
ing the  article  baked.  Gems  and  such  things  as  have  no 
leavening  agent,  but  depend  on  the  expansion  of  the  cold 
liquid  and  air  beaten  into  the  flour,  should  have  an  oven 
nearly  as  hot.  When  things  have  risen,  the  heat  should 
decrease  a  little  to  bake  them  through. 

References:  Science  &  Art  of  Bread  Making— Jago — pp. 
362,  363. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN. 

The  Indians  made  much  use  of  maize,  and  whether  it 
is  a  native  of  Mexico,  Central  America,  or  Northern 
South  America  is  not  definitely  known.  It  may  have 
been  indigenous  in  all  these  regions.  There  is  evidence 
that  it  has  long  been  under  man's  influence.  The  speci- 
mens of  minature  ears,  only  three  or  four  inches  in  length, 
which  were  the  mute  associates  of  the  Cliff  Dwellers  and 
Peruvian  Mummy  relics  on  exhibition  at  the  World's 
Fair,  give  evidence  of  an  early  history.  We  have  inter- 
esting stories  of  how  the  Indians  preserved  the  flavor  of 
the  corn  by  thorough  drying  in  the  ear,  and  then  shelling, 
and  again  drying  before  a  fire,  or  in  the  hot  sun,  to  expel 
all  the  moisture  before  storing  in  caches  or  holes  in 
the  earth.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  it  could  be 
sufficiently  protected  by  mats  to  prevent  it  absorbing 
moisture  from  the  surrounding  earth  when  stored  in  this 
way,  though  of  course  dry  places  were  chosen  for  the 
caches.  There  are  many  varieties  of  corn  of  each  of  the 
four  general  classes,— the  flint,  the  dent,  the  sweet,  and 
the  pop  corn.  We  see  by  the  table  herewith  that  the 
flint  and  the  dent  corn  have  practically  the  same  chemical 
composition. 

By  using  varieties  of  one  or  the  other  of  these  classes, 
corn  can  be  successfully  grown  in  every  state  in  the 
Union.  The  flint  and  pop  varieties  flourish  in  the  cooler 
climate  of  the  northern  corn  belt,  while  the  dent  and  the 
larger  sweet  kinds  prefer  the  milder  climate  farther 
south.  It  is  said  that  climate  exerts  a  marked  effect  on 
the  variety  of  corn,  and  that  flint  corn,  when  planted 


124 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


farther  south,  will  gradually  become  larger  and  later  in 
maturing.  As  to  which  is  more  nutritious,  the  yellow 
or  the  white  corn,  no  definite  distinction  can  be  made. 
Both  chemical  analysis  and  experience  have  failed  to  find 
the  one  or  the  other  uniformly  better.  Some  varieties  of 
one  are  found  superior  to  certain  varieties  of  the  other. 


I 

-I 

"c^ 
c 
fe 

Water 

• 

•91 

Protein 

1 

£ 

1 

0 

Nitrogen' 
Free  Extract 

49 

•a 

Corn,  dent.        

86 

10  6 

1  5 

10  3 

1  •' 

68  6 

4  6 

Corn  flint 

68 

11  3 

1  4 

10  5 

1  7 

70  1 

5  0 

Corn,  sweet  

26 

8  8 

1  9 

11  6 

2  8 

66  8 

8  1 

Corn,  pop 

4 

10  7 

1  5 

11  •? 

18 

69  6 

5  2 

Barley  

10 

10  9 

2  4 

124 

27 

69  8 

1  8 

Oats 

30 

11  3 

3  0 

11  8 

9  5 

59  7 

5  0 

Rve  

6 

11.6 

1  9 

10  6 

1  7 

72  5 

1  7 

Wheat,  spring- 

13 

104 

1  9 

125 

1  8 

71  2 

2  2 

Wheat    winter               i 

262 

10  5 

1  S 

11  8 

1  8 

72  0 

2  1 

Wheat,  all  varieties 

310 

10  5 

1  8 

11  9 

1  S 

71  9 

2  1 

Rice 

10 

12  4 

0  4 

7  4 

0  2 

79  2 

0  4 

Buckwheat  

g 

12  6 

2  0 

10  0 

8  7 

64  5 

2.2 

Cornmeal 

77 

15  0 

1  4 

9  2 

1  9 

68  7 

3  8 

Oatmeal  

6 

7  9 

2  0 

14  7 

0  9 

674 

7  0 

Barlet'meal 

3 

11  9 

2  6 

10  5 

6  5 

66  3 

2  2 

Rye  flour  

44 

13.1 

0  7 

6.7 

04 

78  3 

08 

Wheat  flour 

20 

12  4 

0  5 

10  8 

0  2 

75  0 

1  0 

Graham  flour  

3 

13.1 

1.8 

11.7 

1.9 

69.8 

1.7 

Buckwheat  flour  

4 

14.6 

1.0 

6.9 

0.3 

75.8 

1.4 

Analysis  of  Foods — Compiled  by   Jenkins  <!t   Winston.     Hand    Book,   Experi- 
ment Station  Work. 

Among  domestic  animals,  corn  holds  a  place  similar  to 
that  conferred  on  wheat  by  the  human  family.  To  them 
it  seems  to  be  the  most  palatable  and  is  the  strongest  in 
fattening  qualities  of  all  the  cereals.  The  reason  for  this 
liking  may  be  that  they  find  greater  pleasure  in  eating 
the  hard  corn,  which  breaks  up  into  little  hard  particles, 
and  gives  opportunity  for  much  mastication.  The  wheat 
grain  makes  a  sticky,  unpleasant,  doughy  mass  when 
crushed  in  the  mouth.  Chemical  analysis  shows  that  corn 
carries  much  nutrition.  The  market  price  is  usually  low. 
For  these  two  reasons,  corn  is  by  far  the  cheapest  food  for 
man  over  much  of  the  civilized  world.  Why  is  it  not 
more  generally  used  for  food  ? 

The  composition  of  cornmeal  is  given  in  the  preceding 
table.  The  following  cut  from  New  Jersey  Bulletin  No. 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  125 

105,  may-  aid  in  fixing  in  the  mind  the  relative  amounts 
of  protein,  starch,  mineral  matter,  oil,  etc.,  contained  in 
the  whole  grains  of  corn  before  milled. 

a  is  the  outer  covering  of  the  grain  of  corn,  or  bran. 
This  consists  of  two  layers  and  constitutes  practically  all 
the  crude  fiber  of  the  grain. 

b  is  a  layer  of  gluten  cells  which  lies  next  the  bran. 
This  is  usually  yellow  in  color. 

c  is  the  germ.  This  is  rich  in  oil  and  mineral  matter 
and  contains  some  gluten. 

d  is  composed  largely  of  starch. 


Kernel  of  Corn. 

Corn  contains  a  smaller  amount  of  proteid  matter  than 
wheat,  and  its  gluten  is  of  a  very  different  quality.  It  is  not 
possible  to  make  so  porous  a  loaf  from  cornmeal  as  from 
wheat  flour.  Corn  bread  is  to  most  persons  more  palata- 
ble when  hot  than  when  cold.  In  wheat,  the  parts  which 
affect  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  flour  can  be  very  com- 
pletely separated  out  in  the  milling  by  removing  the 
aleurone  cells  and  the  germ  of  the  wheat.  The  germ  is 
removed  from  the  corn  in  the  process  of  milling  and 
this  takes  out  most  of  the  oil,  the  germ  containing  sixty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  fat  contained  in  the  entire  grain. 
The  remaining  oil  is  so  distributed  as  to  be  inseparable, 
and  the  meal  does  not  long  retain  its  most  perfect  flavor. 


126  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Young  and  growing  children  should  not  be  fed  too  large- 
ly on  corn  products.  These  lack  the  mineral  matter  neces- 
sary to  bone  formation.  They  have  not  a  sufficient  amount 
of  protein  to  build  up  the  growing  muscles.  By  elderly 
people  and  people  of  sedentary  habits  corn  can  be  partaken 
of  more  freely  with  good  results.  Among  the  people  of  the 
rural  districts  of  northern  Italy,  a  disease  known  as  "pel- 
legra"  prevails.  This  disease  is  believed  to  be  caused  by 
the  exclusive  use  of  corn  as  a  food  by  these  people.  The 
corn  plant  in  Italy  is  not  free  from  disease,  as  ours  in 
this  country  is.  Some  claim  that  the  sickness  brought 
on  from  the  use  of  corn  as  food  is  due  in  part  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  fungi.  Two  authorities  state  "that  Fua  found 
aspergillus  and  penicillium  fungi  in  the  cornmeal  which 
had  caused  pellagra,  and  was  able  to  separate  from  it  sev- 
eral poisonous  substances,  evidently  decomposition  prod- 
ucts." 

Corn  is  not  so  good  a  single  food  for  man  as  wheat, 
nor  for  domestic  animals  as  oats.  But  for  either  it  is  a 
very  cheap  and  useful  portion  of  the  ration,  especially  if 
there  are  foods  to  use  with  it  which  have  an  abun- 
dance of  protein  and  mineral  nutrients.  Man  has  done 
all  in  his  power  to  so  mill  this  product  as  to  furnish  it  in 
the  best  form,  with  the  best  possible  keeping  qualities. 
Woman's  part  is  to  see  that  it  is  so  cooked  as  to  render 
its  nutritive  qualities  most  available  for  human  needs. 
Man  urges  her  to  attend  to  this  one  thing  which  remains 
necessary  to  make  corn  form  at  least  a  part  of  our  diet 
of  every-day  life. 

A  very  large  amount  of  corn  is  used  each  year  in  the 
manufacture  of  starch,  glucose,  beer,  spirits,  etc.  Corn- 
starch  is  used  to  some  extent  for  human  food,  and  very 
largely  for  laundry  purposes,  and  for  sizing  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  textiles  and  paper.  The  processes  by 
which  starch  is  manufactured  from  corn  vary  somewhat, 
but  are  essentially  as  follows:  Mature  corn  is  used  for 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  127 

the  purpose.  The  germ  and  hull  are  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  grain  either  by  machinery  or  by  soaking  the 
grain  in  warm  water,  crushing  into  medium-sized  par- 
ticles, and  separating  by  gravity.  The  hulls  float,  and  the 
germs  sink.  The  water  flows  on,  carrying  with  it  the 
starch  and  the  gluten.  The  gluten  is  lighter  than  the 
starch,  and  thus  the  two  are  afterwards  separated.  The 
parts  of  the  corn  which  cannot  be  utilized  for  either 
starch  or  glucose  are  called  by-products,  and  are  used 
for  stock.  They  have  a  high  feeding  value.  The  refuse 
contains  the  protein,  fat,  and  mineral  matter  of  the  corn 
grain.  When  hominy  and  other  cereals  are  manufac- 
tured from  corn,  the  skin  and  germ  form  practically  the 
by-product,  the  proteid  in  this  case  being  largely  pre- 
served as  part  of  that  designed  for  human  food. 

The  green  succulent  ears  of  the  varieties  of  sweet  corn 
are  very  tempting,  and  judging  from  the  great  and  in- 
creasing demand  for  the  various  forms  of  green  corn, 
woman's  skill  is  not  lacking  in  preparing  it  for  the  table. 
Immense  amounts  pour  into  our  cities  during  the  sum- 
mer for  immediate  consumption. 

Green  corn  is  brought  north  from  the  southern  mar- 
kets about  the  first  of  June.  In  the  middle  states  a  favor- 
able season  makes  it  ready  for  use  about  the  middle  of 
July.  In  the  New  England  states  it  comes  into  the  mar- 
k(et  about  the  first  of  August.  A  succession  of  crops 
keeps  it  procurable  until  the  middle  of  October,  or  even 
later.  In  the  use  of  this  luxury,  as  in  many  other  in- 
stances, farmers  have  a  decided  advantage  over  their 
city  cousins.  Green  corn,  to  be  at  its  best,  should  have 
attained  the  full  size  of  its  kernels.  At  this  stage  it  is 
said  to  be  never  unwholesome.  It  soon  deteriorates  in 
flavor,  and  should  always  be  eaten  on  the  same  day  that 
it  is  picked.  By  the  second  day,  it  has  lost  much  o"f  its 
flavor,  and  is  no  doubt  less  wholesome,  if  not  less  di- 
gestible. Farmers  usually  raise  a  supply  of  sweet  corn 


128  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

for  home  consumption,  in  addition  to  what  is  marketed, 
so  that,  both  in  amount  and  value,  sweet  corn  forms  an 
important  item  in  farm  produce.  Sweet  corn  is  very 
largely  preserved,  both  by  canning  and  drying.  The 
work  is  so  successfully  done  that  much  of  the  flavor  of 
the  fresh  corn  is  preserved.  This  not  only  pleases  the 
palate,  but  aids  in  preserving  good  health  by  answering 
one  of  the  demands  of  nature  for  a  variety  of  food 
during  the  long  winter  months.  Sweet  corn,  as  seen 
in  the  table,  is  somewhat  richer  in  protein  than  the  com- 
mon field  corn.  It  has  less  carbohydrates,  but  a  greater 
amount  of  fat  and  protein.  It  owes  its  sweetness  while 
ripening  to  glucose.  This  adds  to  its  palatability,  but 
in  nutritive  qualities  it  makes  practically  no  difference, 
as  sugars  and  starches  have  about  the  same  food  value. 

Again  referring  to  the  table,  we  find  that  pop  corn 
does  not  fall  below  field  corn  in  any  of  the  food  ele- 
ments. Unfortunately,  pop  corn  has  fallen  into  bad 
usage.  If  it  were  taken  at  meal  time,  the  system  might 
gain  something  from  its  nutritive  qualities.  When  taken 
between  meals,  it  can  only  be  classed  among  those  foods 
which,  eaten  in  excess  of  what  is  needed,  are  worse  than 
thrown  away.  Such  practices  are  very  injurious  to 
health. 

Why  should  not  white  men,  representatives  of  a  civil- 
ized race,  teach  the  Indians  how  to  use  corn  to  better 
advantage  as  food, — this  native  plant,  which  their  le- 
gends say  is  a  gift  from  the  Great  Spirit?  Why  does 
the  government  continue  to  place  a  premium  upon  its 
misuse?  Some  years  ago  the  following  appeared  in  one 
of  our  western  papers : 

"Corn  in  Nebraska  sells  for  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel. 
This,  distilled,  makes  four  and  one-half  gallons  of  spirits. 
After  being  manipulated  by  the  distilleries,  this  makes 
nine  gallons  of  whiskey.  This  pays  the  United  States 
government  ninety  cents  a  gallon,  which  is  a  revenue  of 
eight  dollars  and  ten  cents  from  one  bushel  of  corn." 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  129 

They  might  have  added,  this  practice  takes  every  sem- 
blance of  manhood  from  many  an  American  citizen. 
It  makes  him  a  disgrace  to  his  kind  in  this  world,  and 
leaves  him  without  hope  in  the  next. 

If,  as  some  claim,  a  better  knowledge  of  how  to  select 
food  and  prepare  it  will  help  to  abate  this  misery,  let 
woman  regard  it  not  only  a  duty,  but  a  pleasure,  to  gain 
all  possible  information  on  this  subject,  and  not  only 
this,  but,  having  acquired  that  knowledge,  let  her  be 
untiring  in  putting  it  into  practice,  and  bringing  it  year 
by  year  to  still  greater  perfection. 

Corn  is  the  basis  of  America's  supremacy  in  pork,  beef, 
and  mutton,  and  does  much  to  add  to  our  fame  as  a 
dairying  nation.  American  corn  wou,ld  add  vitality  to 
rice-eating  China  and  India.  American  corn  is  best  ex- 
ported in  the  forms  of  juicy  steaks,  legs  of  mutton,  sides 
of  bacon,  and  tubs  of  golden  butter ;  but  while  it  is  so 
cheap  in  America,  it  is  extravagance  not  to  use  more  of 
it  on  our  tables.  There  are  fewer  persons  who  under- 
stand the  secrets  of  corn  cookery  than  there  are  of  those 
who  can  handle  wheat  products  successfully.  Every 
mother  and  every  cook  should  know  how  to  make  a 
variety  of  breads,  pones,  puddings,  mushes,  and  cakes  of 
this  truly  American  food.  Let  us  use  it  more,  and  our 
European  visitors  will  carry  home  with  them  an  acquired 
taste  for  it.  Let  wives  give  it  to  their  husbands  when 
hunger  brings  a  good  appetite,  that  they  may  learn  to 
enjoy  it.  Let  our  schools  teach  of  its  use,  since  it  is  the 
most  neglected  cheap  food  in  America. 

Since  corn  is  not  an  entire  food,  and  is  peculiar,  when 
used  in  large  quantities,  because  of  engendering  a  heated 
or  feverish  condition  of  the  body  and  producing  fat,  it 
has  been  wrongfully  discredited.  It  is  not  adapted  to 
the  whole  ration,  but  with  vegetables,  meats,  and  milk 
it  is  adapted  to  a  larger  place  in  the  ration  than  it  now 
occupies.  As  one-fourth  of  our  food,  cornmeal  has  no 

5 


130  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

competitor  in  cheapness,  and  this  is  a  most  important 
consideration  with  our  common  people.  Corn  is  pro- 
duced throughout  the  west  annually  at  twenty  cents  per 
bushel,  or  seven  dollars  per  ton.  Wheat  costs  nearly 
or  quite  three  times  as  much  per  ton  to  produce, — sixty 
cents  per  bushel,  being  twenty  dollars  per  ton. 

Statistics  show  that  wheat  is  only  a  little  more  valuable 
from  either  the  standpoint  of  total  nutrients  or  of  pro- 
tein compounds.  Bread  has  won  our  hearts  because  of 
its  dainty  white  loaves,  and  our  theories  and  sentiments 
have  rightly  crowned  wheat  the  queen  of  the  cereals; 
but  corn  is  king.  The  poor  of  the  cities,  the  farmers 
and  laboring  classes  everywhere,  should  be  taught  to  use 
more  of  it.  The  great  problem  is  how  to  cook  it  so  that 
the  flavor  and  appearance  will  make  it  attractive.  This, 
accomplished  among  our  home  consumers,  will  save  mil- 
lions now  spent  for  more  expensive  foods.  Accomplish 
this  in  our  export  countries,  and  much  will  be  done  for 
our  farmers  who  produce  American  corn.  I  know  of 
no  more  emphatic  statement  with  which  to  emphasize 
the  main  reason  for  the  wider  use  of  corn  than  that  corn 
is  too  cheap  to  be  adulterated. 

Possibly,  many  of  our  people  do  not  use  corn  because 
its   cheapness   causes    it   to   be   reckoned    common,    and 
adapted  to  those  who  cannot  afford  suitable  food.     Fash- 
ion often  makes  us  foolish. 
Reasons  for  Scalding  Cornmeal  before  Using. 

We  soak  dried  beans,  dried  corn,  dried  fruits,  etc.,  to 
restore  as  far  as  possible  their  former  moisture.  Corn 
is  so  very  hard  and  flinty  that  soaking  in  cold  water  has 
little  effect,  and  the  particles  remain  hard,  even  after  the 
bread  is  baked.  How  is  it  with  corn  mush?  The  par- 
ticles are  softened,  and  the  starch  cells  broken  and  ready 
to  be  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juices.  The  reasons  then, 
in  short,  are  to  soften  the  hard,  flinty  particles,  so  that 
the  digestive  fluids  may  readily  act  upon  them,  and  to  so 
prepare  the  corn  that  the  best  flavor  will  be  brought  out 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  131 

in  cooking.  All  starches  need  very  thorough  cooking. 
Cornmeal  should  be  scalded  and  allowed  to  swell  before 
making  into  bread  of  any  kind,  if  one  wishes  to  have  the 
finest  flavor  possible. 

Corn  Griddle  Cakes  with  Egg. 

One  cup  granulated  cornmeal,  three-fourths  cup  boiling 
water,  one  egg,  one  teaspoonf ul  sugar,  one  teaspoonf ul  salt, 
one  tablespoonful  flour.  To  make  corn  griddle  cakes,  fill 
an  earthen  bowl  with  boiling  water,  and  put  the  measur- 
ing cup  and  the  wooden  spoon  in  the  bowl.  Measure 
all  the  dry  ingredients,  except  soda  or  baking  powder, 
and  put  with  the  measured  meal.  Turn  the  water  from 
the  bowl,  put  the  meal  into  it,  and  pour  the  boiling  water 
on  the  meal ;  then  stir,  and  see  that  the  meal  is  thoroughly 
mixed.  Cover  and  let  set  half  an  hour,  when  it  should 
be  about  cold.  Put  the  yolk  of  the  egg  in,  and  stir  until 
thoroughly  incorporated,  put  in  enough  cold  milk  to  make 
the  batter  as  thin  as  it  can  be  without  running  over  the 
griddle,  then  fold  in  the  well-beaten  white. 

In  some  cases  one  can  use  as  much  boiling  water  as 
cornmeal,  in  other  cases  the  meal  will  not  absorb  so  much 
water.  A  larger  amount  of  flour  may  be  used  than  is 
given  in  the  above  formula,  but  the  cakes  are  more  delicate 
with  little  flour. 

In  serving  griddle  cakes,  it  is  better  never  to  pile 
them,  because  they  lose  some  lightness  by  such  treat- 
ment. In  putting  them  on  the  griddle,  put  on  a  little, 
then  put  more  carefully  on  this.  You  can  thus  have 
the  batter  much  thinner  than  if  a  large  quantity  is  put 
on  at  once. 

Corn  Griddle  Cakes  with  Baking  Powder. 

One  cup  granulated  cornmeal,  three-fourths  cup  boil- 
ing water,  one  teaspoonful  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  salt, 
one  tablespoonful  flour,  one  teaspoonful  baking  powder 
(generous).  Put  the  baking  powder  and  the  flour  aside,, 
then  proceed  as  in  corn  griddle  cakes  with  egg,  and 


132  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

beat  in  the  baking  powder  and  flour,  thoroughly  mixed, 
at  the  last. 

Corn  Griddle  Cakes.— Class  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  cornmeal,  one-fourth  cup  of  boiling 
water,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one-fourth  cup  of 
milk,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  one-fourth 
teaspoonful  of  sugar,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one 
teaspoonful  of  egg  (well  beaten). 

Corn  Griddle  Cakes  with  Sour  Milk. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  for  griddle  cakes  with 
baking  powder,  except,  instead  of  the  baking  powder, 
mix  with  the  flour  one-half  teaspoonful  of  soda  for  every 
cup  of  sour  milk  used. 

Corn  Muffins  with  Egg. 

One  cup  granulated  cornmeal,  three-fourths  cup  boil- 
ing water,  one  level  teaspoonful  sugar,  one  level  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  one  egg.  Proceed  exactly  as  for  corn 
griddle  cakes,  except  put  in  just  enough  milk  so  that  the 
dough  will  settle  into  place  in  tins.  Bake  in  shallow 
iron  gem  pans  in  an  oven  about  the  same  heat  as  for 
bread. 

Corn  Muffins  with  Baking  Powder. 

One  cup  granulated  cornmeal,  three-fourths  cup  boil- 
ing water,  one  teaspoonful  baking  powder  (generous), 
one  level  teaspoonful  sugar,  one  level  teaspoonful  salt, 
one  tablespoonful  of  flour.  Proceed  in  same  manner  as 
for  corn  griddle  cakes  with  baking  powder,  except  make 
the  batter  less  thin,  having  it  just  so  it  will  settle  into 
:shape  over  the  top. 

-Corn  Muffins— For  Class  Work. 

One  teaspoonful  of  beaten  egg,  one-fourth  cup  corn- 
meal,  one  fourth  cup  of  boiling  water,  three  tablespoonfuls 
of  flour,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  milk  (sweet),  one-fourth 
teaspoonful  of  baking  powder  (generous).  Have  cups, 
bowl  and  spoon  very  hot,  pour  the  boiling  water  over  the 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  133 

meal  in  the  hot  bowl  and  stir  well ;  add  the  milk  a  little  at 
a  time,  then  the  egg  and  salt,  then  the  flour  with  the 
baking  powder  sifted  with  it,  stir  well  and  bake  in  a 
moderately  hot  oven  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  minutes. 
Serve  hot. 

Corn  Muffins  with  Sour  Milk.— Class  Rule. 

Same  as  the  preceding,  except  use  sour  milk,  and  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  soda  to  one-half  cup  of  milk,  instead 
of  using  sweet  milk  and  baking  powder. 

Blueberry  Muffins. 

Make  same  as  corn  muffins,  except  add  one-half  cup 
of  blueberries  (floured)  for  each  cup  of  cornmeal  used. 
Add  berries  to  batter  when  ready  to  bake. 

Corn  Gems. 

One  pint  of  cornmeal,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  boiling 
water.  Stir  together  until  smooth  and  cool,  then  stir  in 
two  well-beaten  eggs.  Put  in  sweet  milk  enough  to  make 
the  right  consistency.  If  the  gems  are  thin,  they  will  bake 
in  twenty  minutes. 

Corn  Gems  (with  White  Meal), 

'  One  pint  of  meal,  three-fourths  pint  of  boiling  water, 
three-fourths  pint  of  sweet  cream,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  eggs,  well  beaten, 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder.  Put  together  and 
bake  same  as  above. 

Steamed  Corn  Bread. 

Use  either  sweet  or  sour  milk,  two  cups  of  cornmeal, 
one  cup  of  white  flour,  three  cups  of  sour  milk,  two  level 
teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  one-fourth  cup  of  shortening,  one- 
fourth  cup  of  sugar,  one  and  one-half  level  teaspoonfuls 
of  soda.  Mix  the  flour,  sugar,  cornmeal  and  salt  together 
and  stir  into  the  sour  milk.  Melt  the  shortening  and  stir 
that  in  very  thoroughly.  Lastly  add  the  soda  mixed  with 
a  tablespoonful  of  flour  and  see  that  it  is  well  mixed  with 


134  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

the  other.  Put  into  a  greased  pudding  mold  and  steam 
three  hours.  If  sweet  milk  is  used,  leave  out  the  soda, 
and  add  three  level  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder  instead 
of  the  soda. 

Nut  Bread. 

Two  and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  half  white  and 
half  whole  wheat  flour,  three  level  teaspoonfuls  bak- 
ing powder,  three-fourths  cup  English  walnuts  (chop- 
ped), two  level  teaspoonfuls  salt,  one  and  one-half  cups 
of  sweet  milk.  Mix  the  flour,  baking  powder  and  salt 
thoroughly,  then  add  the  nuts  and  stir  them  well  through, 
add  the  milk  and  stir  just  enough  to  mix.  Put  into  greas- 
ed pudding  molds  and  steam  three  hours,  or  bake  in  shal- 
low gem  or  muffin  tins  half  an  hour. 

Corn  Bread  No.  1. 

One  pound  butter  (two  cups),  one  pound  sugar  (two 
cups),  one  pound  flour  (four  cups),  one  pound  cornmeal 
(three  cups),  one  quart  milk  (four  cups),  four  eggs, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  baking  powder.  Rub  the  sugar 
and  butter  together,  add  the  milk,  then  stir  in  the  flour, 
meal  and  baking  powder  which  have  been  thoroughly 
mixed.  Fold  in  the  well-beaten  eggs  and  bake  in  a 
moderate  oven  until  well  browned. — Mrs.  James. 

Corn  Bread  No.  2. 

One  cup  granulated  cornmeal,  three-fourths  cup  of 
boiling  water,  one  tablespoonful  butter,  one  teaspoonful 
sugar,  one  teaspoonful  salt,  two  eggs,  one-fourth  cup  of 
flour.  Make  the  same  as  corn  muffins  with  egg,  except 
the  flour,  which  stir  in  just  before  the  egg  yolk,  and  fold 
the  white  in  very  carefully. 

Cornbread  with  Baking  Powder. 

Make  same  as  corn  muffins  with  baking  powder,  ex- 
cept add  one-fourth  cup  of  flour. 


MAIZE  OR  INDIAN  CORN.  135 

Cornbread  with  Sour  Milk  and  Soda. 

Same  as  above,  except  use  sour  milk  instead  of  sweet, 
and  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  soda  to  each  one-half  cup 
of  milk. 

Steamed  Brown  Bread. 

Two-thirds  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  cup  of  milk, 
one-third  of  a  cup  of  sorghum  molasses,  two-thirds  pf  a 
cup  of  graham  flour,  one  cup  of  cornmeal,  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  baking  powder,  one-third  of  a  cup  of  raisins  and 
currants  mixed.  Put  together  in  the  order  given,  and  put 
the  fruit  between  layers  of  the  mixture.  Steam  three 
hours. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
LUNCH  BASKETS. 

The  lunch  basket  should  have  sufficient  bottom  surface 
to  allow  sandwiches,  etc.,  to  lie  without  piling.  It  should 
be  sufficiently  roomy  to  admit  of  a  glass  for  water,  as 
neither  the  child  at  school  nor  the  man  at  his  work; 
should  drink  from  a  public  cup.  There  should  be  room 


Child's   Lunch   Basket. 

for  a  small  plate,  as  a  piece  of  pie,  even  though  not 
always  best  for  the  stomach,  makes  a  pleasant  variety  at 
times. 

Whether  a  basket  or  a  tin  pail  is  the  better  receptacle, 
let  each  person  decide  for  himself.  The  lunch  must  be 
protected  from  dust,  and  if  a  basket  is  used,  there  is 
necessarily  an  extra  napkin  about  the  lunch  to  prevent 


LUNCH  BASKETS.  137 

evaporation,  as  well  as  to  protect  from  the  dust.  A  tin 
pail  often  causes  an  unpleasant  combination  of  flavors  if 
the  lunch  stands  long.  Sandwiches  necessarily  form  a 
portion  of  all  lunches,  and  they  keep  far  better  when 
wrapped  in  paraffine  paper.  The  aim  should  be  to  give 
some  substantial  sandwiches  and  some  daintier  ones  each 
day.  A  variety  should  be  given  on  different  days.  Fruit 
of  some  kind  should  always  form  a  portion  of  a  lunch. 
For  children's  lunches,  the  cake  used  should  be  some- 
thing simple,  as  sponge  cake,  ginger  bread,  etc. 

Such  vegetables  as  can  be  carried,  as  celery,  lettuce, 
tomatoes,  and  radishes,  accompanied  only  by  a  little  salt, 
are  often  relished  by  children.  The  first  two  vegetables 
make  sandwiches  which  are  enjoyed  by  both  adults  and 
children. 

SANDWICHES. 

Use  the  best  bread  for  making  sandwiches.  Cut  a  thin 
crust  from  the  end  of  the  loaf,  and  butter  the  cut  sur- 
face before  cutting  off  a  thin  slice.  Warm  the  butter  a 
little,  that  it  may  spread  without  tearing  the  surface  of 
the  bread.  Use  whole  wheat,  graham,  or  white  bread, 
as  preferred.  Leave  the  slices  plain,  simply  cutting  in 
the  center  and  folding  over,  or  cut  in  fancy  shapes,  as 
desired.  The  crust  may  be  removed  on  special  occa- 
sions, but  it  is  usually  better  to  leave  the  crust  on,  both 
from  an  economical  and  a  hygienic  standpoint. 

Lettuce  Sandwich. 

Butter  thin  slices  of  bread,  lay  a  lettuce  leaf  on 
each,  and  on  one-half  spread  cooked  mayonnaise  dress- 
ing, made  as  on  page  285,  and  seasoned  with  three- 
fourths  of  a  teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasoning  (No.  i)  to 
one  cup  of  the  dressing.  Lay  the  other  lettuce  leaf  on 
this,  and  the  other  slice  of  bread  on  top  of  that. 

Water  Cress  Sandwich. 

Make  same  as  lettuce  sandwich,  except  use  water  cress 
instead  of  lettuce. 


138  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Salad  Dressing  for  Lettuce  Sandwich. 

Use  equal  parts  of  cooked  dressing  ( with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  butter)  and  whipped  cream.  Season  to  taste  with 
mixed  seasoning. 

Ham  Sandwich  No.  1. 

Hash  scraps  of  ham  very  fine,  using  one-fourth  as 
much  fat  as  lean.  Season  to  taste  with  made  mustard. 
Butter  thin  slices  of  bread,  and  spread  with  the  ham. 

Ham  Sandwich  No.  2. 

Mince  bits  of  ham  fine,  season  salad  dressing  same  as 
directed  for  lettuce  sandwiches,  mix  with  the  ham  and 
spread  between  slices  of  buttered  bread. 

Plain  Meat  Sandwich. 

Cut  cold  meat  very  thin,  and  lay  between  slices  of  but- 
tered bread. 

Mustard  Sandwich. 

Chop  cold  meat  very  fine,  and  moisten  with  mustard 
made  to  use  with  cold  meats,  and  spread  between  slices 
of  buttered  bread. 

Picnic  Sandwich. 

Bake  plain  rolls  of  bread  dough.  Cut  a  circular 
piece  from  the  end,  and  take  out  the  crumb.  Fill  the 
cavity  with  minced  chicken  or  ham,  moistened  with  salad 
dressing,  and  return  the  piece  cut  off. 

Cottage  Cheese  Sandwich. 

Butter  thin  slices  of  bread,  and  spread  with  cottage 
cheese. 

Lettuce  and  Cheese  Sandwich. 

Butter  thin  slices  of  bread,  lay  a  lettuce  leaf  on  the 
slice,  place  on  this  some  cottage  cheese,  then  another  leaf 
of  lettuce,  then  another  slice  of  buttered  bread. 


LUNCH  BASKETS.  139 

Cheese  Sandwich  No.  1. 

Butter  thin  slices  of  bread,  and  between  the  pieces  lay 
thin  slices  of  cheese. 

Cheese  Sandwich  "No.  2. 

Spread  thin  slices  of  bread  with  butter,  then  sprinkle 
thickly  with  grated  cheese.  Put  the  slices  together,  and 
cut  in  any  shapes  desired. 

Celery  Sandwich. 

Wash  crisp,  white  celery,  wipe  dry,  and  cut  into  small 
pieces.  Mix  with  the  same  kind  of  salad  dressing  as  di- 
rected for  lettuce  sandwiches,  and  spread  between  the 
buttered  slices. 

Celery  and  Nut  Sandwich. 

Make  same  as  celery  sandwich,  except  add  one-third 
as  much  chopped  English  walnuts  as  there  is  chopped 
celery. 

Egg  Sandwich  No.  1. 

Butter  thin  slices  of  bread,  and  spread  between  them 
hard  boiled  eggs  chopped  and  moistened  with  white 
sauce  (page  53),  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Egg  Sandwich  No.  2. 

Remove  the  shells  from  hard-boiled  eggs.  Chop  the 
eggs  very  fine,  or  press  through  a  potato  ricer,  moisten 
with  cooked  salad  dressing  (page  285),  seasoned  with 
one  teaspoonful  of  mixed  salad  seasoning  (page  287) 
to  each  cup  of  dressing  used.  Spread  the  mixture  on 
thin  slices  of  buttered  bread. 

Egg  Sandwich  (with  Lettuce)  No.  3. 

Place  a  lettuce  leaf  on  the  buttered  bread,  spread  this 
with  the  prepared  egg,  place  another  lettuce  leaf  on  it, 
and  then  the  other  slice  of  buttered  bread. 


140  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Egg  Sandwich  No.  4. 

Hard  boil  the  eggs.  Remove  the  shells,  hash,  season 
with  pepper,  salt,  and  a  little  butter,  spread  on  thin  slices 
of  buttered  bread,  and  lay  together. 

Sardine  Sandwich, 

Mince  the  desired  quantity  of  sardines,  and  mix  with 
one-third  the  quantity  of  ham  chopped.  Moisten  with 
made  mustard  (page  495).  Spread  thin  slices  of  bifead 
with  butter,  and  spread  the  mixture  on  the  bread.  Put 
two  slices  together,  and  cut  in  any  form. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
CANNING. 

Use  a  granite  or  porcelain  kettle  for  cooking  all  acid 
fruits  and  vegetables.  A  wooden  spoon  is  best  for  stir- 
ring. 


Canning  and  Jelly  Making. 

The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  prepare  the  cans.  Wash 
them  thoroughly  with  soapsuds,  and,  if  need  be,  boil  them 
in  lye  water.  When  jars  and  covers  are  perfectly  clean 
and  free  from  odors,  fit  each  jar  with  cover  and  rubber, 
and  let  stand  upside  down  with  water  in,  that  you  may 
be  sure  they  do  not  leak.  When  they  are  fitted,  keep 
them  together  until  they  are  used,  but  do  not  put  covers 
on  the  jars  as  they  are  apt  to  smell  when  opened.  WThen 
sugar  is  used  in  fruit,  it  should  be  put  in  just  long  enough 


142  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

before  sealing  to  be  melted,  as  it  loses  sweetness  by  cook- 
ing with  fruit. 

Both  vegetables  and  fruits  for  canning  should  be  per- 
fectly mature,  but  not  over  ripe.  They  should  be  free 
from  blemish,  and  cooked  and  canned  as  soon  as  possible 
after  picking.  After  they  become  mature,  they  soon  be- 
gin to  deteriorate. 

Prepare  to  take  each  fruit  and  vegetable  when  in  sea- 
son, and  at  its  best.  When  getting  ready  for  a  day  of 
canning,  try  to  can  the  most  perfect,  and  make  marma- 
lades or  butters  of  the  cullings. 

In  order  to  be  sure  that  canned  goods  will  keep,  you 
must  be  certain  that  there  are  no  living  germs  in  the 
cans  when  sealed.  The  finest  and  most  perfect  fruits  and 
vegetables  have  the  best  flavor,  and  are  most  apt  to  be 
free  from  germs. 

Fruits  have  a  better  color  and  flavor  when  cooked  in 
small  quantities,  because  they  are  not  cooked  so  long. 
They  keep  better,  because  they  are  more  apt  to  be  actually 
boiling  hot  all  through. 

Rule  for  Canning  Fruits  and  Vegetables. 

Have  fresh,  perfect  fruit.  Be  sure  that  jars,  rubbers, 
and  covers  are  sterilized  and  hot.  Fill  brimful  with 
material  actually  boiling  hot  all  through,  have  the  top 
edge  of  the  can  clean,  seal  tight,  and  screw  the  cover 
tighter  when  it  has  cooled  a  little. 

Pieplant  is  the  first  of  the  fruit  kind  to  appear  in  the 
spring,  and,  on  account  of  its  pleasant  acid  taste,  it  is  not 
unwelcome  through  the  winter  in  shortcakes,  pies  and 
marmalades. 

To  Can  Pieplant. 

Wash  the  stalks  of  pieplant,  and,  if  old  enough  to  have 
a  tough  skin,  peel.  Cut  in  pieces,  and  cook  in  a  small 
amount  of  water  until  soft  and  thoroughly  heated  through. 
Sweeten  or  not,  as  you  like,  as  this  makes  no  difference 
with  its  keeping.  Have  a  large  pan  of  hot  water  on  the 


CANNING.  143 

stove,  with  an  iron  rack  in  the  bottom  of  it  for  the  cans 
to  lie  on.  Let  the  water  extend  at  least  half  way  up 
the  cans.  Have  the  water  boiling,  and  put  the  cans  in 
it,  each  one  with  its  rubber  on,  and  its  cover  by  its  side. 
Lay  the  cans  in  the  water  so  that  water  will  be  inside  and 
out.  When  the  fruit  is  cooked  (in  a  separate  kettle),  raise 
a  jar,  empty  the  water  into  the  pan,  fill  within  half  an 
inch  of  the  top,  wipe  the  edge  clean,  and  finish  filling 
to  the  brim  with  boiling  water.  Take  the  cover  from 
the  hot  water,  screw  it  on,  and  set  the  jar  on  a  wet  towel 
out  of  the  draft.  As  it  cools,  put  the  cover  down  a  little 
if  you  can.  Be  sure  that  the  cans,  as  well  as  covers  and 
rubbers,  are  sterilized,  the  contents  boiling  hot,  and  the 
covers  on  tight,  for  it  is  on  these  things  that  success  de- 
pends. Pieplant  may  be  cut  into  pieces,  packed  in  jars 
that  have  been  sterilized  and  cooled,  and  the  contents 
then  covered  with  water  which  has  been  boiled  and  cooled, 
and  it  is  pretty  apt  to  keep,  if  the  work  is  done  quickly, 
and  the  jar  sealed  at  once;  for  the  only  chance  for  germs 
is  on  the  pieplant  itself.  Pieplant  may  be  also  cut  into 
pieces,  put  in  hot  sterilized  jars,  covered  with  boiling 
water,  put  in  a  pan  of  water  in  the  oven,  with  support 
for  the  jars,  and  the  covers  screwed  on  after  it  is  cooked 
some,  but  not  enough  to  fall  to  pieces.  This  will  look 
prettier  than  when  broken  up  in  cooking. 

When  fruit  is  scarce,  some  pieplant  should  always  be 
canned  while  it  is  still  young  and  tender.  One  part  of 
pieplant  with  two  parts  of  plums  makes  a  fine-flavored 
fruit  butter.  Apples  may  be  successfully  mixed  with  pie- 
plant in  the  same  way. 

To  Can  Soft  Berries,  as  Raspberries  and  Dewberries. 

You  may  cook  and  can  them  same  as  pieplant,  and 
this  is  best  for  all  general  purposes,  but  they  are  prettier 
when  packed  in  sterilized  jars,  set  in  water  on  a  rack,  heated 
until  the  juices  run  freely,  then  the  cans  filled  with  boil- 


144  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

ing  syrup,  and  sealed.  To  be  certain  that  the  juice  and 
syrup  mix  well,  tie  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  over  the  neck 
of  the  jar,  decant  the  liquid,  boil  and  pour  on  again  and 
seal. 

Canning  Fruits  Without  Cooking. 

Sugar  is  a  preserving  agent,  and  some  fruits  may,  with 
its  aid,  be  canned  and  kept  without  cooking.  Currants 
are  often  so  put  up  for  use  with  meats.  Crush  the  fruit, 
and  be  sure  that  not  a  berry  escapes,  and  mix  thoroughly 
with  an  equal  amount  of  sugar.  Fill  sterilized  jars  brim- 
ful and  screw  covers  on  tight. 

To  Can  Peaches  and  Cherries. 

If  the  peaches  are  very  soft,  they  may  be  cooked  in  a 
syrup  to  prevent  breaking.  The  sugar  will  harden  the 
fruit,  but  will  lose  some  of  its  sweetness.  Both  peaches 
and  cherries  have  a  better  flavor  when  some  pits  are 
.cooked  with  them.  These  take  up  room  in  the  cans,  of 
course.  The  peach  pits  should  be  cracked  before  cooking. 

Cherries  may  be  canned  whole  in  same  manner  as 
berries. 

To  Can  Peaches  and  Pears  Whole. 

Pare  the  fruit  carefully,  to  leave  as  smooth  a  surface  as 
possible,  and  cook  in  syrup  until  tender.  Then  put  care- 
fully and  compactly  into  the  sterilized  jars,  strain  the 
liquid  over,  fill  to  the  very  brim,  and  seal. 

To  Can  Corn. 

Select  ears  of  corn  in  the  perfect  roasting-ear  stage, 
and  with  a  sharp  knife  score  each  row  of  grains,  cut  a 
very  thin  slice  from  the  ends  of  all  the  grains,  and  with  a 
kitchen  knife  scrape  the  rest  off  the  cob.  For  each  quart 
of  corn,  put  into  the  kettle  a  pint  of  water  and  half  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt,  put  the  corn  to  cook,  and  add  more 
boiling  water  as  it  evaporates.  Let  it  cook  for  fifteen  or 
twenty,  minutes  after  it  actually  boils  all  through.  WatcH 
and  stir  with  a  wooden  spoon  to  prevent  burning,  but 


CANNING.  145 

do  not  allow  to  stop  boiling.  When  it  has  actually  boiled 
twenty  minutes,  fill  the  jars  to  within  one-half  an  inch  of 
the  top,  cram  down  with  the  spoon  to  prevent  air  bubbles 
through  it,  finish  filling  with  boiling  water,  and  seal  ac- 
cording to  rule.  May  cook  corn  in  jars,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  sterilize  in  center  of  jars,  and  it  will  spoil  unless 
perfectly  sterile.  It  must  be  cooked  in  the  jars  not  less 
than  four  hours. 

To  Can  Peas. 

Pick  the  peas  just  before  using.  Shell,  cook  half  an 
hour,  and  salt  same  as  for  the  table,  put  into  sterilized 
jars,  and  seal. 

Or,  put  the  peas  into  the  cans,  fill  with  water,  add  salt, 
as  for  eating,  put  covers  on  loosely,  and  cook  in  boiling 
water  four  hours,  and  seal  as  before.  The  first  are  more 
apt  to  keep  well. 

To  Can  String  Beans. 

Choose,  prepare,  and  cook  as  for  the  table,  except  to 
season  with  salt  only,  and  seal  according  to  rule. 

Directions  for  canning  often  say  "cook  in  the  cans 
in  hot-water  bath."  This  is  well  if  the  cooking  is  done 
thoroughly,  but  it  is  difficult  to  cook  thoroughly  unless 
a  very  long  time  is  allowed.  The  center  is  often  not  boil- 
ing hot. 
To  Can  Tomatoes. 

Tomatoes  are  easily  canned,  and  their  acid,  pleasant 
taste  adds  much  to  the  winter  fare.  To  can  tomatoes, 
gather  ripe,  red  tomatoes,  and  prepare  them  as  for  serv- 
ing raw.  Put  to  cook  in  a  porcelain  lined  or  granite 
ware  kettle,  and  boil  until  absolutely  certain  that  every 
particle  in  the  kettle  is  boiling  hot.  While  these  are 
cooking,  see  that  the  covers  and  rubbers  fit  the  cans  by 
trying  them  with  water.  Let  covers,  rubbers,  and  cans 
stand  immersed  in  boiling  water  until  ready  to  use  them. 
Pour  the  tomatoes  boiling  hot  into  the  hot  cans,  on  which 


146  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

the  rubbers  are  fitted.  Fill  brimful,  and  screw  on  covers. 
Turn  the  jars  upside  down,  wrap  in  a  wet  cloth,  and  let 
stand  until  cold.  Screw  the  covers  down  tighter  as  they 
cool.  When  cold,  set  in  a  cool,  dry  place.  Do  not  al- 
low to  freeze. 

To  Can  Tomatoes  Whole. 

Select  perfect  medium-sized  tomatoes.  Fill  the  jars 
with  them,  after  sterilizing  the  jars  and  washing  the 
tomatoes.  To  each  quart  of  tomatoes  put  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  salt,  fill  the  jar  with  boiling  water,  and  seal. 

Or,  scald  and  pare  the  tomatoes,  fill  the  jars  with 
them,  pour  in  boiling  water  half  way  up  the  side  of 
the  jar,  set  in  a  pan  in  the  oven  on  rack,  and  when  thor- 
oughly heated,  but  not  falling  to  pieces,  fill  to  the  brim 
with  boiling  water,  and  seal.  These  are  nice  for  special 
dishes,  but  too  much  trouble  for  every-day  use. 
FOOD  PRESERVATIVES. 

Salt  and  sugar  have  been  used  as  preservatives,  one 
might  almost  say,  since  time  immemorial.  Smoke,  and  a 
small  amount  of  heat,  as  in  making  bacon,  might  be  listed 
among  preservatives. 

The  word  "preservative,"  as  now  used,  means  powders 
used  for  keeping  fruits,  meats,  milk  and  other  food  in  a 
fresh  condition.  These  preservative  powders  ars  sold  un- 
der many  different  names,  but  each  usually  contains  some 
chemical  which  is  injurious  to  health.  Borax,  boric  acid, 
salicylic  acid,  and  formalin  are  the  chemicals  generally 
used.  A  preservative  may  contain  one  or  more  than  one 
of  these. 

There  is  no  reason  why  foods  should  not  be  preserved 
in  the  household  by  those  good  old  methods  practiced  by 

References:  Common  Sense  in  the  Household — Harland — 
pp.  463-467;  Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  84-90,  827,  834- 
846;  The  Art  of  Cookery — Ewing — pp.  163-165;  Food  Products 
of  the  World — Green — pp.  35-37;  Boston  Cook  Book — Lincoln — 
pp.  401-403;  Elements  of  Cookery — Williams  &  Fisher — pp. 
282-286;  Ann.  Rep.  Minn.  Exp.  Station  1899,  pp.  516,  517. 


FRUIT   SAUCES.  147 

our  forefathers.  Drying  and  canning  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, salting  and  smoking  meats,  and  either  sterilizing 
milk,  or  subjecting  it  to  sufficient  cold  to  prevent  its  sour- 
ing in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  Such  methods  of 
preserving  are  effective,  and  the  products  are  wholesome, 
but  the  preservatives  sold  and  used  are  very  generally 
harmful. 

FRUIT   SAUCES. 

In  order  that  a  food  material  may  do  its  best  work,  it  is 
essential  that  it  be  as  free  as  possible  from  all  impurities. 
This  is  especially  true  of  such  as  are  eaten  raw,  as  green 
apples  and  other  fresh  fruits.  Such  food  should  always 
be  sound  and  mature. 

While  undeveloped  or  impure  foods  may  cause  injury, 
proper  selection  and  preparation  of  foods  will  often  do 
more  toward  relieving  aggravated  forms  of  dyspepsia  than 
the  most  skilled  physician  is  able  to  accomplish  by  any 
other  means.  The  ambition  of  a  good  cook  is  to  become 
so  proficient  in  the  art  of  selecting  and  preparing  foods 
as  to  understand  which  ones,  when  cooked,  will  best  sub- 
serve the  purposes  of  the  body ;  and  then  prepare  them  in 
such  a  way  that  they  will  retain  all  their  nutrients,  giving 
the  consumer  the  full  benefit  of  the  food  he  eats.  Fruits 
should  never  be  cooked  in  a  vessel  of  tin  or  iron.  Both 
the  color  and  the  flavor  of  the  acid  fruit  thus  cooked 
will  be  injured.  A  wooden  spoon  or  a  paddle  is  best 
for  stirring  such  foods,  as  wood  is  not  acted  on  by  the 
acid  of  the  fruit.  The  color  which  the  fruit  gives  to 
both  spoon  and  vessel  can  be  removed  by  immersing  in 
boiling  water  before  washing  in  soapsuds.  A  dust  of 
salt  added  to  almost  any  fruit  while  hot  emphasizes  the 
flavor.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  that  an  over  amount 
of  neither  sugar  nor  salt  be  added,  for  the  object  is  to 
bring  out  the  flavor  of  the  fruit,  without  a  hint  of  the 
presence  of  anything  else.  Sugar  should  be  added  to 

References:  Ann.  Rep.  Minn.  Exp.  Station  1899,  pp.  507, 
508. 


148  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

the  fruit  just  before  removing  from  the  fire,  because,  if 
the  sugar  is  heated  with  the  fruit  any  length  of  time,  it 
loses  much  of  its  sweetening  power.  Cooking  the  fruit 
after  the  sugar  is  added  tends  also  to  harden  the  fruit. 

Most  farmers  can  raise  a  sufficient  quantity  of  grapes 
for  family  use  with  little  trouble.  We  might  all  well 
echo  Mr.  Gladstone's  advocacy  of  the  extension  of  fruit 
culture:  "We  shamefully  neglect  the  best  of  all  food  in 
using  so  little  fruit."  It  is  possible  to  have  at  least  cooked 
fruit  during  the  long  winter,  when  there  is  a  dearth  of 
green  vegetables.  Fruit  is  not  a  luxury,  but  it  is  neces- 
sary to  -the  continued  good  health  of  our  families. 

Grapes  are  easily  handled,  since  they  will  jelly  when 
not  fully  ripe,  or  after  they  have  lain  in  cold  storage 
for  weeks.  They  are  an  economical  fruit  because,  after 
the  juice  has  been  strained  out,  the  remaining  portion 
may  be  put  through  a  sieve  and  made  into  butter  of 
very  good  quality.  The  skins  and  seeds  are  all  that  are 
lost,  and  these  would  not  be  digested  if  eaten. 

In  most  sections  of  our  country,  apples  can  be  cheaply 
grown.  Apples  not  only  keep  long  in  good  condition, 
but  have  a  flavor  which  is  not  impaired  after  the  fruit 
has  been  stored  for  many  months.  They  can  be  successful- 
ly canned  or  dried,  and  thus  preserved  for  all  seasons  of 
the  year.  This  fruit  is  such  a  universal  favorite,  and  its 
free  use  aids  so  much  in  keeping  the  body  in  good  condi- 
tion, that  no  farm,  however  small,  if  in  the  apple  belt, 
should  be  considered  complete  without  its  apple  orchard. 
Apples  are  relished  in  almost  any  form.  For  many  per- 
sons, nothing  is  more  wholesome,  or  has  a  more  useful 
medicinal  effect,  than  an  apple  taken  at  the  beginning  of 
the  morning  meal.  Such  persons  as  cannot  readily  masti- 
cate and  digest  raw  apples  often  receive  benefit  from  a 
scraped  apple,  or  one  which  has  been  baked.  The  flavor 
of  the  apple  is  delicate  and  easily  impaired.  To  many 
persons,  apple  sauce  has  a  finer  flavor  when  eaten  while 
still  warm. 


FRUIT  SAUCES.  149 

To  Stew  Apples. 

Pare,  quarter,  core,  and  wash  the  apples.  Place  the 
prepared  quarters  in  a  saucepan  with  a  small  quantity 
of  hot  water,  cover  closely,  and  stew  rapidly  for  five  or 
ten  minutes.  If,  on  removing  the  cover,  the  apples  fall 
apart  readily,  they  are  done.  In  this  case,  put  into  a 
dish  half  the  quantity  of  sugar  required  to  sweeten  the 
apples,  pour  on  this  the  hot  apples,  sprinkle  over  them 
the  other  half  of  the  required  quantity  of  sugar,  cover 
closely,  and  serve  hot  or  warm.  If  to  be  used  cold,  allow 
to  remain  covered  until  cold,  in  order  to  retain  the  flavor. 

Cook  apples  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  order  to  preserve 
the  flavor  of  the  fruit.  The  amount  of  water  necessary 
depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  apple.  Very  juicy 
apples  will  require  no  more  water  than  will  adhere  to 
the  fruit  in  washing  it  before  cooking.  If  the  apples 
are  very  dry,  they  may  require  three-fourths  of  a  cup 
to  each  pint.  The  flavor  of  the  apple  is  usually  delicate 
and  easily  destroyed,  therefore  only  the  quantity  of  water 
necessary  to  thorough  cooking  should  be  added.  For  the 
same  reason,  all  unnecessary  stirring  either  before  or 
after  cooking  should  be  avoided. 

To  Bake  Apples. 

Core  and  pare  tart  apples,  leaving  them  whole.  Fill  the 
cavity  where  the  core  was  with  sugar,  and  bake  until  soft. 
Use  a  granite  ware  pan,  as  either  tin  or  iron  is  acted  on 
by  the  acid. 

Baked  Apple  Sauce. 

Pare  and  core  sweet  apples.  Put  a  little  water  in  the 
pan  to  prevent  burning,  and  cook  until  done. 

To  Make  Cider  Apple  Sauce. 

Boil  sweet  cider  until  it  is  reduced  one-half,  then  add 
sweet  apples  which  have  been  pared,  quartered,  and  cored, 
and  cook  until  the  apples  are  dark  and  transparent.  Keep 
the  apples  covered  with  cider  while  cooking.  When  the 


150  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

apples  are  done,  skim  them  out,  and  put  more  to  cook  in 
the  same  cider.  If  stone  jars  are  thoroughly  boiled  and 
the  cider  apple  sauce  put  into  them  while  both  jars  and 
sauce  are  hot  it  will  keep  well  in  a  cool  place  in  open 
jars.  It  will,  of  course,  keep  the  same  as  canned  fruit 
if  put  into  glass  jars  air  tight. 

Khubarb  and  Apples. 

One  part  canned  rhubarb  to  two  parts  of  sour  apples, 
cooked  and  mixed  with  the  rhubarb,  makes  a  pleasant 
variety. 

To  Stew  Cranberries. 

Put  two  quarts  of  cranberries,  after  they  are  looked 
over  and  washed,  into  a  granite  ware  or  porcelain 
lined  kettle,  and  pour  over  them  one  and  one-half  pints 
of  boiling  water,  cover  closely,  and  cook  until  the  skins 
burst.  Mash  them  through  a  strainer  to  remove  skins, 
put  again  over  the  fire,  add,  three  cups  of  sugar,  and  when 
it  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  fruit  and  melted,  remove 
from  the  fire.  The  sauce  will  jell  when  cold. 

To  Stew  Cranberries— Class  Rule. 

One  cup  cranberries,  one-half  cup  water  (scant),  one- 
half  cup  sugar  (scant).  Proceed  as  above. 

Currant  and  Huckleberry  Sauce. 

Look  over  and  wash  the  desired  quantity  of  fruit,  using 
one-third  as  many  currants  as  huckleberries.  Put  to  cook 
in  the  water  that  clings  to  them.  Cook  slowly  until  done, 
and  sweeten  to  taste.  Dried  currants, and  canned  black- 
berries make  nice  pies,  when  mixed  in  this  proportion. 

Currant  and  Elderberry  Sauce. 

Make  same  as  currant  and  huckleberry  sauce. 

Raspberry  and  Currant  Sauce. 

Red  raspberries  and  currants  make  a  nice  sauce,  but 
when  they  can  be  had  fresh  are  better  raw  than  cooked. 


FRUIT  SAUCES.  151 

Blackberry  Sauce. 

Look  the  blackberries  over,  and  take  the  finest  out  to 
serve  raw.  Put  the  cullings  to  cook,  using  one  cup  of 
hot  water  to  each  quart  of  berries.  Make  half  a  cup  of 
flour  into  a  batter  with  half  a  cup  of  cold  water.  Put  one- 
fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  into  one  cup  of  boiling 
water,  and  pour  this  into  the  batter,  stirring  constantly 
to  prevent  lumping.  When  well  mixed,  stir  it  into  the 
berries,  and  cook  until  the  flour  ceases  to  have  a  raw 
taste.  Sweeten  to  taste,  and  serve  cold  with  cream. 

To  Stew  Pieplant. 

Pieplant  may  be  prepared  for  sauce  in  the  same  way 
as  the  blackberries,  but  when  young  and  tender  is  best 
cooked  in  a  little  water  and  sweetened.  Old  pieplant 
must  be  peeled. 

To  Stew  Gooseberries  No.  1. 

Proceed  in  the  same  way  as  for  blackberries,  after  hav- 
ing removed  the  stems  and  blossom  ends.  When  goose- 
berries are  young,  just  cook  with  a  little  water  and 
sweeten. 

To  Stew  Gooseberries  No.  2. 

Pick  off  the  stems  and  the  blossom  ends,  wash  the  ber- 
ries, and  put  to  cook  in  just  enough  water  to  prevent  burn- 
ing. When  about  done,  add  a  pinch  of  soda,  set  off  the 
fire,  and  sweeten  to  taste. 

To  Cook  Dried  Fruit. 

Thoroughly  wash  the  fruit  in  warm  water,  then  put 
to  soak  in  sufficient  cold  water  to  cover  it.  Let  stand 
until  it  has  absorbed  all  the  water  it  will  take  up,  then 
put  to  cook  in  the  water  in  which  it  was  soaked.  Cook 
slowly  and  continuously,  after  it  reaches  the  boiling  point, 
until  it  becomes  tender.  Sweeten  just  before  removing 
from  the  fire.  Many  dried  fruits  have  better  flavor  when 
a  very  sweet  and  a  very  acid  variety  are  cooked  together. 
Prunes  and  apricots  are  a  good  example  of  such  a  mix- 


152  HOUSEHOLD  ^  SCIENCE. 

ture.  Like  fresh  fruits,  they  should  be  cooked  covered. 
Dried  plums,  if  very  sour,  are  improved  by  having  an 
equal  quantity  of  prunes  or  seedless  raisins  cooked  with 
them. 

To  Cook  Dried  Apples. 

Look  the  apples  over,  wash  clean,  and  put  to  soak  in 
plenty  of  cold  water.  Let  soak  several  hours,  or  over 
night,  and  put  to  cook  in  the  water  in  which  they  were 
soaked  and  cook  slowly  until  done.  Remove  from  the 
fire  and  sweeten. 

All  dried  fruits  are  prepared  and  cooked  in  the  same 
way. 

Dried  Apples  and  Raisins,  or  Dried  Currants. 

Use  equal  parts  of  the  two  fruits,  and  proceed  as  above. 

Stewed  Prunellos  and  Pears. 

Use  equal  portions  of  the  two  fruits.  Look  over, 
wash,  and  put  to  soak  in  cold  water  in  separate  bowls. 
When  swollen,  put  to  cook  in  the  water  in  which  soaked, 
but  cook  the  prunellos  an  hour  before  adding  the  pears. 
When  soft,  but  not  mushy,  sweeten. 

To  Stew  Prunes  and  Apricots. 

Look  over  a  pint  of  prunes  and  the  same  amount  of 
apricots.  Put  to  soak  in  separate  bowls  with  cold  water 
to  cover,  and  let  soak  until  they  are  plump,  and  have 
absorbed  all  the  water  they  will.  Then  put  the  prunes  to 
cook  in  a  well-scalded  cheesecloth  bag.  When  they  have 
cooked  slowly  an  hour,  add  the  apricots,  and  cook  until 
they  are  done.  Remove  the  prunes,  sweeten  the  remain- 
ing fruit  and  juice,  and  pour  over  the  prunes  half  of  the 
liquid. 

To  Stew  Prunes  with  Plums. 

Proceed  in  same  manner  as  with  prunes  and  apricots. 


Dried  Fruit  Butter. 

Use  equal  portions  of  apricots  and  prunes  well  cooked 
and  mashed  through  a  colander.  Put  over  the  fire,  let 
become  boiling  hot,  sweeten  and  serve.  Equal  parts  of 
seedless  raisins  and  apricots  make  a  nice  sauce  also. 

Buttered  Apples. 

Select  a  rather  tart  apple,  pare  and  core,  being  careful 
not  to  break  the  apple,  place  in  a  rather  shallow  dripping 
pan,  put  a  teaspoonful  of  sugar  in  the  center  of  each  ap- 
ple. Make  a  basting  liquid  by  heating  together  half  a 
cup  of  water,  four  level  teaspoonfuls  of  butter  and  one- 
fourth  cup  of  sugar ;  baste  the  apples  before  putting  them 
in  the  oven.  Bake  in  a  moderately  hot  oven ;  basting  two 
or  three  times  while  baking. 

To  Steam  Pieplant. 

Use  tender  pieplant,  cut  in  small  pieces,  wash  and  put 
into  upper  part  of  double  boiler ;  set  this  in  the  water  boil- 
ing in  lower  part,  and  put  again  over  the  fire,  and  let  cook 
until  done;  then  sweeten  and  serve. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

JELLIES,  MARMALADES,  PRESERVES  AND  PICKLES- 
JELLY  MAKING. 

Fruit  juices  must  be  skimmed  while  cooking  to  pre- 
vent cloudy  jelly.  To  have  clear,  sparkling  jelly,  it  is 
safer  to  strain  the  second  time.  To  do  this,  have  jelly 
bag,  jelly  dipper,  and  an  earthen  pitcher,  as  well  as 
jelly  glasses,  ready  in  hot  water,  and  when  the  jelly  is 
ready  to  pour  out,  strain  into  the  glasses.  Some  things 
jell  so  suddenly  that  much  is  lost  by  trying  to  strain,  un- 
less done  quickly. 

For  all  jellies  measure  the  liquid  after  straining  before 
putting  to  cook,  and  use  an  equal  amount  of  sugar  or 
less,  as  you  like,  for  the  jelling  depends  on  the  pectin 
of  the  fruit,  and  the  juice  will  jell  with  no  sugar.  If 
the  jelly  is  for  meat,  use  less  sugar  than  if  for  some 
other  purpose.  When  the  sugar  and  fruit  juice  have 
been  measured,  put  the  juice  to  cook  in  a  new  granite 
or  porcelain  lined  kettle, — at  least  one  free  from  stains 
if  you  wish  a  transparent  jelly  of  its  own  color, — and 
the  sugar  in  the  oven  to  heat.  The  object  in  having  the 
sugar  hot  is  simply  to  hasten  the  work  of  jelly  making, 
and  the  jelly  is  probably  a  little  clearer  when  so  made,  as 
the  boiling  need  not  stop  when  the  sugar  is  added.  Jel- 
lies will  also  have  a  better  color  and  flavor  when  the  juice 
is  cooked  so  that  the  sugar  need  be  added  only  long 
enough,  before  taking  from  the  fire,  to  be  thoroughly  dis- 
solved and  perfectly  combined  with  the  fruit  juice. 

Paraffine  poured  over  the  top  of  jelly  to  the  thickness 
of  one-fourth  of  an  inch  makes  a  good,  cheap,  and  con- 
venient covering.  When  ready  to  use  the  jelly,  loosen 
the  edges  of  the  paraffine  with  a  knife,  and  remove  it, 
wash  the  paraffine,  dry  it,  and  lay  it  away  for  future  use. 


JELLIES.  155 

In  using  the  following  formulae,  be  sure  that  the 
directions  are  faithfully  carried  out.  These  are  rules 
which  have  been  tested  and  used  in  classes,  and  any  vari- 
ation from  them  may  give  disastrous  results.  If  the  fruit 
is  used  with  much  water  clinging  to  it,  it  will  of  course 
require  longer  boiling  than  as  here  given  for  drained 
fruit. 

The  pulp  of  fruit  used  for  jellies  may  be  mixed  with 
an  equal  portion  of  fresh  fruit,  and  used  for  jams. 

Currant  Jelly. 

Pick  the  currants  just  before  using  them.  Wash  the 
bunches,  if  they  need  washing,  and  drain.  Pick  the  cur- 
rants from  the  stems,  put  into  the  kettle,  and  cook  ten 
minutes,  or  until  soft,  crushing  with  the  wooden  spoon. 
When  ready,  pour  into  a  pointed  jelly  bag,  which  is  best 
made  of  felt  (if  you  wish  clear  jelly),  and  hang  to  drain, 
— do  not  squeeze.  When  the  juice  is  ready,  measure  it 
and  the  sugar  as  directed,  cook  the  juice  ten  minutes,  then 
put  the  sugar  in,  let  boil  up  well,  strain,  and  put  into 
tumblers. 

The  currants  may  be  simply  crushed,  and  the  juice  ex- 
tracted for  jelly,  without  previous  cooking. 

Apple  Jelly. 

Perfect,  red,  acid  apples  are  the  best,  no  matter  what 
variety.  Cut  the  apples  into  eighths,  and  use  both  par- 
ings and  cores,  as  they  improve  the  color  and  flavor  of 
the  jelly.  Put  three  quarts  of  the  cut-up  apples  in  the 
preserving  kettle,  and  pour  over  them  one  quart  of  boil- 
ing water,  cook  rapidly  until  the  apples  are  soft,  re- 
move, and  pour  at  once  into  a  cheesecloth  bag.  When 
cool  enough,  squeeze  out  all  the  liquid  possible,  and 
pour  into  a  white  wool  bag,  and  hang  up  to  drain. 
When  the  liquid  is  ready,  boil  until  a  few  drops  on  a 
plate  will  show  signs  of  jelling,  then  put  in  the  sugar, 
which  was  measured  when  the  juice  was  put  to  cook  and 
which  measures  three-fourths  as  much.  The  sugar  must 


156  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

be  set  in  the  oven,  and  kept  from  burning  and  melting 
until  hot  enough  to  hiss  when  put  into  the  juice.     Let  boil 
up  well,  keep  the  jelly  skimmed  all  the  time,  take  the 
glasses  from  the  hot  water,  and  fill  them. 
Home-Made  Vinegar. 

Use  the  squeezed  apples,  boil  up  with  water,   strain, 
cool,  and  add  a  little  sugar.     Set  in  a  warm  place  and 
cover  with  cheese  cloth.     Examine  occasionally,  and  if 
not  working,  add  a  little  more  sweetening. 
Crabapple  Jelly. 

It  is  very  convenient  to  make  this  jelly  when  making 
crabapple  butter.  Select  apples  with  perfect  cores  as 
well  as  skins.  Put  to  cook  in  water  just  sufficient  to 
show  through  as  you  look  down  on  the  apples.  When 
the  crabapples  are  soft,  with  a  granite  ware  cup  dip  off 
juice  enough  for  a  few  glasses  of  jelly,  let  drip  through 
the  jelly  bag,  measure,  heat  the  sugar,  boil  the  juice,  and 
proceed  as  before  in  apple  jelly,  except  do  not  let  cook 
too  much,  as  it  jells  very. readily. 
Grape  Jelly. 

Wild  grapes,  just  after  they  turn,  make  a  fine  jelly, 
both  in  appearance  and  flavor.  Cultivated  grapes  will 
jell  just  before  ripe,  when  ripe,  and  even  after  having 
been  stored  for  weeks,  but  stored  grapes  will  give  a  jelly 
that  is  of  a  dark  color,  and  not  transparent. 

Wash  the  grapes  on  the  stem,  drain,  and  stem  them. 
Put  in  a  stone  jar  without  water,  set  in  a  pan  of  water, 
and  cover  closely.  Let  cook  until  the  skins  break,  and 
the  pulp  is  soft.  Take  from  fire,  pour  into  the  jelly  bag, 
and  let  drain.  Measure  the  liquid  and  an  equal  amount 
of  sugar.  Put  the  sugar  in  the  oven,  and  the  liquid  over 
the  fire,  boil  twenty  minutes.  Then  add  the  sugar  hissing 
hot,  let  boil  about  two  minutes,  and  pour  into  the  hot 
tumblers. 

Green  Wild  Grape  Jelly. 

Make  same  as  any  grape  jelly,  using  wild  grapes  when 
just  ready  to  turn. 


JELLIES.  157 

Quince  Jelly. 

See  that  the  quinces  are  perfectly  clean,  quarter  and 
core  them,  but  do  not  pare.  Cut  in  small  pieces,  and  put 
to  cook  in  just  enough  cold  water  to  cover  them.  Cook 
until  soft.  Drain  through  a  white  flannel  bag,  but  do 
not  squeeze.  Measure  the  juice,  and  measure  either 
three-fourths  as  much  sugar  or  an  equal  amount,  as  you 
please.  Put  the  juice  in  a  porcelain  lined  or  granite  ware 
kettle  over  the  fire,  and  put  the  sugar  in  a  basin  in  the 
oven.  Let  the  juice  boil  hard  fifteen  minutes,  then  put 
the  sugar  in  hissing  hot,  let  boil  five  minutes  more,  and 
try  it  to  ascertain  whether  it  will  jell.  It  may  need  to 
boil  a  little  more,  but  twenty  minutes  rapid  boiling  is 
usually  enough. 

Quinces  are  not  a  very  satisfactory  fruit  for  jelly  when 
used  alone.  They  jell  with  difficulty,  making  a  syrupy 
rather  than  a  perfect  jelly. 

Raspberry  and  Currant  Jelly. 

Use  one-third  raspberry  and  two- thirds  currant,  and 
make  same  as  currant  jelly. 

Cranberry  and  Apple  Jelly. 

Wash  and  look  over  one  quart  of  cranberries,  put  to 
cook  in  a  granite  or  porcelain  kettle  with  three-fourths 
of  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  cover  closely  and  cook  five 
minutes.  Stir  and  mash  with  a  wooden  spoon,  turn  into 
.a  jelly  bag  with  apples  prepared  as  for  jelly.  Use  three- 
fourths  as  much  apple  as  cranberry  juice,  and  add  as 
much  sugar  as  you  have  fruit  juice.  Cook  five  minutes 
and  turn  into  glasses. 

Class  Rule. 

Two  cups  of  cranberries. 

Three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  water.     Cook  until  soft. 

Three  cups  of  sliced  apples. 

Three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  water.     Cook  until  soft. 


158  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Drain  through  a  jelly  bag  together.  Use  an  equal 
amount  of  sugar  and  fruit  juice.  Cook  five  minutes  and 
put  into  glasses. 

Rhubarb  and  Apple  Jelly. 

Wash  clean  and  cut  into  pieces  two  quarts  of  rhubarb 
and  one  quart  of  good  cooking  apples.  Add  the  grated 
yellow  rind  of  a  lemon  and  one  and  one-half  cups  of 
water.  Cook  covered  until  both  rhubarb  and  lemon  are 
soft,  then  drain  through  cheesecloth.  Measure  the  juice, 
and  for  each  pint  of  it  use  three-fourths  of  a  pint  of 
sugar.  Put  the  juice  over  the  fire  and  boil  rapidly  for 
twenty  minutes.  Put  the  sugar  in  the  oven,  and  add  it 
hissing  hot.  When  it  boils,  turn  the  jelly  into  glasses, 
if  it  jells  on  trial,  otherwise  boil  a  few  minutes  longer. 

Strawberry  and  Currant  Jelly. 

Use  equal  parts  of  strawberry  and  currant,  and  make 
same  as  currant  jelly,  mixing  the  fruit  before  cooking. 

Currant  and  Cherry  Jelly. 

Use  two-thirds  currant  and  one-third  cherry,  and  pro- 
ceed as  for  currant  jelly. 

Apple  and  Quince  Jelly. 

Use  two  parts  apple  and  one  part  quince.  Remove 
the  seeds  from  the  quinces,  and  cut  the  fruit  in  thin 
slices,  otherwise  proceed  as  for  plain  apple  jelly.  Use 
red  apples  to  give  color  to  the  jelly. 

Crabapple  and  Plum  Jelly. 

Use  equal  parts  of  plums  and  crabapples,  and  proceed 
as  in  making  plain  crabapple  jelly.  It  makes  a  better 
jelly  than  either  fruit  alone. 

High-Bush  Cranberry  and  Apple  Jelly. 

Cranberry,  one  part  (one  cup),  one-half  cup  water, 
cook  until  cranberries  can  be  easily  crushed.  Apple,  four 
parts  (four  cups),  one  cup  water,  cook  until  thoroughly 
done.  Strain  together,  cook  juice  eight  minutes  after  it 


JELLIES.  159 

begins  to  boil.     Add  heated  sugar,  same  amount  as  juice, 
and  cook  two  minutes  after  beginning  to  boil. 

Cranberry  and  Grape  Jelly. 

Cranberries,  one  part,  grapes,  two  parts.  Cook  same 
as  cranberry  and  apple.  Strain  together,  and  cook 
juice  eight  minutes.  Add  sugar  same  amount  as  juice. 
Cook  one  minute  after  beginning  to  boil. 

Grape  and  Apple  Jelly. 

Use  equal  parts  of  grape  and  apple  juice  and  proceed 
as  for  any  other  jelly. 

Apple  and  Red  Raspberry  Jelly. 

Use  one-third  as  much  red  raspberry  juice  as  apple 
juice  and  proceed  as  for  any  jelly. 

Fruit  Juices  and  Syrups. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  fruit  juices  and  syrups  should 
be  put  up  at  canning  time  for  use  in  desserts,  creams,  and 
ices  when  fresh  fruit  cannot  be  had.  To  make  fruit 
juices  of  grapes,  strawberries,  raspberries,  or  currants, 
measure  the  prepared  fruit,  and  put  to  cook  in  about  one- 
fourth  as  much  water  as  there  is  fruit.  Cook  and  strain 
the  fruit  as  for  jelly.  Put  the  juice  over  the  fire,  let  boil 
rapidly  for  five  minutes  after  it  begins  to  boil,  put  into 
hot  sterilized  jars,  filling  them  brimming  full,  and  seal. 

Truit  Syrup. 

Make  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  fruit  juice,  except 
toil  twenty  minutes,  and  add  an  equal  amount  of  sugar 
five  minutes  before  removing  from  the  fire.  If  there  is 
Hot  water  enough,  the  syrup  may  in  some  cases  jell. 

Grape  Juice. 

Five  pounds  concord  grapes  picked  from  the  stems. 
Cook  in  a  porcelain  lined  preserving  kettle,  having  put 
over  them  three  pints  of  cold  water.  When  sufficiently 
cooked;  strain  the  juice  through  a  bag  made  of  cheese- 


160  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cloth.     Add  one  pound  of  granulated  sugar.     Bring  the 
juice  thus  prepared  to  a  boil,  bottle,  and  seal. 

MARMALADES. 

Marmalades  may  be  made  of  the  entire  fruit,  or  of 
equal  parts  of  fresh  cooked  fruit  and  the  pulp  from 
which  jelly  has  been  made.  In  either  case,  rub  the 
fruit  pulp  through  a  granite  ware  puree  sieve  with  a 
wooden  pestle.  Put  over  the  fire,  and  let  cook  until  it 
is  quite  thick,  then  add  three-fourths  as  much  sugar  as 
there  was  of  the  pulp,  and  cook  until  it  is  again  thick  and 
glassy  in  appearance,  then  pour  into  sterilized  vessels,  and 
when  cold  cover  with  paraffine.  Jams  and  marmalades 
will  usually  be  found  much  better  in  quality  when  made 
by  gently  simmering  the  fruit  until  almost  sufficiently 
cooked  before  adding  the  sugar. 

Peach  Marmalade. 

Cover  the  bottom  of  a  wire  basket  with  peaches,  plunge 
into  boiling  water  for  a  minute,  put  into  cold  water  a 
little  while,  then  drain  and  peel  the  skins  off  with  a  silver 
knife.  Cut  the  peaches  in  halves.  Remove  the  stones, 
and  crack  a  few  of  them,  as  they  will  improve  the  flavor 
of  the  fruit  if  cooked  with  the  peaches.  Cook  the  peaches 
in  a  little  water  until  soft,  then  mash  them  and  evapo- 
rate the  water  until  the  mixture  is  thick.  Now  add  the 
sugar,  and  cook  until  it  thickens  again  and  has  a  glassy 
surface.  Pick  out  the  pits  before  mashing. 

Rhubarb  Marmalade. 

Prepare  the  rhubarb,  cut  into  lengths,  and  put  in  a 
stone  jar.  Set  the  jar  in  a  pan  of  water  in  the  oven, 
cover  it,  and  let  cook  until  the  rhubarb  is  tender.  Then 
mash  every  particle  of  it  fine,  and  to  a  gallon  jar  of  the 
uncooked  rhubarb  add  the  grated  yellow  rind  and  the 
juice  of  two  lemons.  Mix  the  grated  rind  with  the 
sugar.  Set  the  rhubarb  in  a  porcelain  lined  or  granite 
ware  kettle  on  the  range,  and  cook  until  thick.  Use 


MARMALADES.  161 

same  amount  of  sugar  as  rhubarb.  The  rhubarb  can  as 
well  be  cooked  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  is  a  little  more 
delicate  this  way. 

Rhubarb  and  Apple  Marmalade. 

Make  in  the  same  way  as  rhubarb  marmalade,  except 
use  one-third  as  much  apple  as  there  is  rhubarb,  and 
leave  out  the  lemons. 

Raspberry  Marmalade. 

Soft  juicy  fruits,  as  raspberries,  blackberries,  etc.,  can 
be  made  into  marmalades,  without  the  addition  of  fresh 
fruit,  after  draining  in  the  jelly  bag.  Simply  put 
through  the  sieve  to  remove  the  seeds. 

Grape  Marmalade. 

Prepare  the  grapes  for  cooking,  put  into  the  preserv- 
ing kettle,  and  cook  until  soft,  then  mash  through  the 
sieve,  leaving  skins  and  seeds.  Put  these  into  a  bowl, 
pour  a  little  boiling  water  over  them,  stir  up,  Strain  this 
into  the  pulp,  and  cook  as  before.  Measure  the  pulp, 
and  use  an  equal  amount  of  sugar. 

Tomato  Butter. 

Weigh  five  pounds  of  ripe  tomatoes  and  half  as  much 
sugar,  either  white  or  brown.  Scald  and  pare  the  to- 
matoes, take  out  the  hard  part,  and  cook  the  tomatoes 
until  soft,  then  strain  through  a  puree  sieve.  Put  the 
pulp  over  the  fire,  and  add  to  it  one  cup  of  good  vinegar. 
Boil  until  quite  thick,  then  add  the  sugar  and  boil  again 
until  it  thickens.  Slice  two  lemons  and  cook  with  it, 
after  straining  through  the  puree  sieve. 

Green  tomatoes  may  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

Tomato  Butter— Class  Rule. 

One  cup  of  cooked  tomato. 
One  cup  of  sugar. 
Three  thin  slices  of  lemon. 
Two  teaspoonfuls  of  vinegar. 


162  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

The  vinegar  may  be  left  out  and  only  three-fourths  of 
a  cup  of  sugar  used. 

Apple  Marmalade. 

Pare,  core,  and  quarter  tart  apples.  Place  in  a  pre- 
serving kettle  with  water  enough  to  just  show  through 
the  fruit.  Cook  until  thick,  stirring  occasionally ;  then 
add  three-fourths  as  much  hot  sugar  as  there  is  of  pulp. 
Cook  until  a  thick  paste  is  formed,  stirring  enough  to 
keep  from  burning,  and  then  add  spices  to  taste.  Cook 
only  a  few  minutes,  and  turn  into  jars.  Cover  with  pa- 
per or  paraffine  wax. 

Crabapple  Butter. 

When  making  crabapple  jelly,  use  the  nicest  of  the 
fruit  for  this,  but  put  the  cullings  to  cook  at  the  same 
time.  Use  the  pulp  which  is  left  from  the  jelly-making, 
and  the  cullings  cooked  soft,  for  marmalade.  Force  these 
through  a  granite  ware  colander  with  a  wooden  pestle, 
and  boil  until  quite  thick, — almost  thick  enough  to  stand 
up  when  a  spoonful  is  put  on  a  cold  plate.  Add  as 
much  sugar  as  there  is  pulp,  and  cook  until  the  wooden 
spoon  will  rest  on  the  top  of  the  cooking  marmalade 
without  sinking,  then  put  into  a  clean  stone  jar,  cover  the 
top  with  hot  paraffine,  and  tie  a  paper  over  this.  Keep 
in  a  cool,  dry  place. 

FRUIT  PRESERVES. 

By  the  word  "preserves,"  we  usually  understand  a 
fruit  preserved  in  sugar,  although,  in  its  general  sense, 
the  word  means  preserving  by  other  means  as  well. 
Fruits  preserved  in  sugar  are  less  wholesome  than  fresh 
or  canned  fruits,  on  account  of  their  extreme  sweet- 
ness. So  much  sugar  is  used  in  tea  and  coffee  and  other 
ways  that  the  body  usually  has  all  it  needs  without  the  use 
of  preserves  or  cake  to  any  great  extent.  In  preserves, 
the  fruit  acids  seem  to  be  so  overcome  by  the  sugar  that 
thev  exert  a  less  beneficial  effect  than  when  the  fruii 


PRESERVES.  163 

is  taken  raw,  or  cooked,  and  simply  sugar  enough  to 
sweeten  it  is  used. 

Melted  paraffine  is  a  good  covering  for  preserves,  but 
there  should  be  a  paper  tied  over  the  top  of  the  jar  to 
exclude  the  dust.  The  paraffine  will  prevent  evaporation 
to  a  great  extent,  and  keep  them  moist  on  top,  even  in  a 
warm  atmosphere.  It  is  better  to  heat  the  paraffine, 
and  pour  it  over,  than  to  put  a  piece  on  top  of  the  pre- 
serves to  melt,  as  the  heating  kills  any  germs  which  may 
be  on  the  wax.  In  making  preserves,  the  fruit  and 
sugar  must  be  cooked  together  long'  enough  to  thoroughly 
dissolve  the  sugar,  and  prevent  it  recrystalizing.  They 
should  not  be  boiled  together  longer  than  necessary,  be- 
cause the  sugar  loses  so  much  of  its  sweetening  power. 
Preserves  and  jellies  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place. 

All  solid  fruits,  such  as  peaches,  pears,  etc.,  should  be 
cooked  almost  done  before  the  sugar  is  added.  Weigh 
the  fruit  before  cooking,  and  use  almost  an  equal  amount 
of  sugar.  After  adding  the  sugar,  cook  until  the  syrup 
formed  from  the  fruit  juice  and  sugar  is  as  thick  as  honey. 
Put  the  fruit  carefully  into  the  jar,  and  pour  the  liquid 
over  it. 

When  soft  fruits,  such  as  berries,  are  preserved,  it  is 
impossible  to  keep  them  whole  unless  great  care  is  ex- 
ercised. It  is  better  to  boil  the  syrup  until  thick  enough, 
and  cook  the  berries  in  it  just  long  enough  to  sterilize 
them,  and  evaporate  the  juice  which  exudes  as  they  enter 
the  boiling  liquid. 

Tomatoes,  when  preserved,  should  be  cooked  in  the 
syrup.  Ground  cherries  are  also  better  treated  in  this 
way.  Quinces  are  sometimes  preserved  by  cooking  until 
tender,  and  putting  in  a  sterilized  stone  jar,  a  layer  of 
quince  and  a  layer  of  sugar,  using  equal  amounts  of  each. 
The  object  in  doing  this  is  to  have  a  lighter  colored  prod- 
uct:' The  quinces  must  be  watched,  and  if  they  begin 
to  ferment  they  must  be  boiled,  as  they  are  not  certain 
to  keep,  preserved  in  this  way.  One-third  as  much  sweet 


J64  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

apple  as  quince  may  be  used  in  quince  preserves  without 
deteriorating  the  product. 

To  Preserve  Cherries. 

Stone  the  cherries.  For  each  quart  of  cherries  measure 
one  and  one-half  pints  of  sugar.  Put  the  sugar  in  a 
saucepan,  and  pour  over  it  half  as  much  boiling  water  as 
there  is  sugar.  Cook  until  the  syrup  is  thick,  then  put 
in  juice  and  cherries,  and  skim  as  it  cooks  until  the 
cherries  are  transparent.  Skim  out  the  fruit  into  glasses, 
and  when  the  syrup  is  thick  as  honey,  pour  it  over  them. 
Cherries  have  a  better  flavor  if  some  of  the  pits  are  cooked 
with  them.  Measure  the  cherries  before  stoning,  if  pre- 
ferred sweeter. 

To  Preserve  Strawberries. 

Strawberries,  raspberries,  and  all  soft  fruits  are  pre- 
served in  the  same  way  as  cherries,  except  use  equal 
parts  of  sugar  and  fruit  where  it  is  more  acid  than 
cherries. 

To  Preserve  Pears  and  Peaches. 

In  preserving  firm  fruits,  as  some  peaches  and  pears, 
put  them  into  boiling  water  and  cook  slowly  and  covered 
until  easily  pierced  with  a  toothpick,  then  remove,  and 
drain ;  add  sugar  to  the  juice  or  liquid  in  which  the  fruit 
was  cooked,  and,  when  thick,  put  the  fruit  into  it,  let  boil 
up,  and  put  carefully  into  the  glasses.  Peaches  have  a 
better  flavor  when  a  portion  of  the  pits  are  cracked  and 
cooked  with  them,  and  pears  are  improved  by  the  addi- 
tion of  a  little  ginger  root  or  cinnamon  bark  boiled  with 
them.  Use  a  piece  an  inch  long  to  each  glass.  The 
liquid  must  be  thick  before  taking  from  the  fire. 

To  Preserve  Sweet  Apples. 

Use  a  sliced  lemon  to  every  dozen  apples,  and  cook 
with  the  apples  to  give  flavor.  Pare,  core,  and  quarter 
the  apples,  and  put  them  and  the  sliced  lemon  in  sufficient 
boiling  water  to  cover  them.  Let  cook,  covered,  until  the 


PRESERVES.  165 

apples  can  be  easily  pierced  with  a  toothpick  or  broom 
straw,  then  pour  off  most  of  the  liquid,  and  set  the  kettle 
where  the  contents  will  boil  slowly.  Measure  the  liquid 
poured  off,  and  add  nearly  as  much  sugar.  Cook  the 
syrup  thus  formed  until  nearly  as  thick  as  honey,  then 
pour  over  the  fruit  in  kettle,  cook  ten  minutes  longer, 
or  until  the  syrup  is  again  thick  as  honey,  and  pour  out 
into  glasses. 

Quince  and  Apple  Preserves. 

Use  two  parts  apple  and  one  part  quince.  Cook  as 
sweet-apple  preserves,  except  cook  the  quince  until  ten- 
der before  adding  the  apples. 

Tomato  Preserves. 

Use  a  small  tomato, — the  peach  tomato  is  good.  Take 
equal  parts  of  tomato  and  sugar.  Use  one  and  one-hall 
tablespoonfuls  of  ginger  to  each  gallon  of  preserves. 
Make  a  syrup  with  the  sugar,  ginger,  and  a  little  water. 
When  it  boils  up  well,  put  in  the  tomatoes  and  cook  until 
they  are  done,  then  skim  the  tomatoes  into  jars,  boil  the 
syrup  until  thick  as  honey,  and  pour  over  the  tomatoes. 
After  three  days,  drain  the  syrup  off  and  boil  again. 

Peach  Preserves. 

Prepare  the  peaches  in  the  same  way  as  for  marmalade 
(page  160),  but  be  careful  not  to  break  them.  Cook 
in  a  syrup  made  of  equal  parts  of  sugar  and  water.  Put 
in  only  a  few  peaches  at  a  time  and  keep  them  whole. 
Put  peaches  into  glasses,  boil  syrup  down  until  as  thick 
as  honey,  and  pour  over  them. 

Preserved  Pineapple. 

Pare  the  pineapples,  and  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife 
dig  out  the  eyes,  cut  the  pineapple  in  slices  an  eighth  of 
an  inch  thick,  cover  with  hot  water,  and  cook  slowly 
until  tender,  then  remove  the  pineapple,  and  add  as 
much  sugar  as  juice  (the  juice  should  evaporate  one- 
half), .let  boil  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  then  add  the 


166  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

pineapple  again,  and  let  cook  until  the  pineapple  is  trans- 
parent, and  the  syrup  thick  as  honey.  Put  into  glasses 
and  cover  with  paraffine. 

Watermelon -Rind  Preserves. 

Select  rind  from  a  thick-rind  melon,  remove  the  red 
inner  portion,  and  pare  off  the  green  outer  part,  cut  into 
small  pieces,  and  cook  in  boiling  water  until  transparent, 
then  skim  out  and  put  into  a  syrup,  and  add,  for  each 
pint  of  the  syrup  and  melon  together,  one  sliced  lemon. 
Cook  until  the  lemon  is  tender  and  the  syrup  is  thick 
as  honey.  Put  into  a  jar  and  tie  a  paper  over,  or  cover 
with  paraffine. 

Preserved  Citron. 

Proceed  in  same  way  as  for  watermelon-rind  preserves, 
except  parboil  and  drain  them. 

Preserved  Plums. 

Prick  the  skins,  to  prevent  breaking,  or  scald  and  re- 
move them  if  desired.  Make  a  syrup  of  equal  parts  of 
water  and  sugar,  and  when  boiling  put  in  a  few  plums 
and  let  cook  until  heated  through,  skim  out,  and  put  in  a 
jar.  When  all  are  cooked,  set  aside  until  next  day,  then 
tie  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  over  the  jar,  drain  off  the  juice, 
and  boil  this  down  a  little,  and  pour  over  the  fruit.  Re- 
peat this  three  times  or  more,  and  the  last  time  empty  the 
jar,  and  put  the  plums  in  the  syrup,  and  let  boil  up,  then 
put  into  the  jar  again  very  carefully,  and  pour  the  boiling 
liquid  over  them. 

Candied  Orange  and  Lemon  Peel. 

Cut  the  peels  into  eighths,  if  convenient.  Cook  in  boil- 
ing water  until  transparent.  Skim  from  the  water  into 
syrup  made  with  equal  parts  of  water  and  sugar,  and 
cook  until  the  syrup  is  thick  as  honey,  remove  the  peel, 
and  dry  on  a  plate.  Use  both  peel  and  syrup  for  flavor- 
ing desserts. 


PICKLING.  167 

'FRUIT  JAMS. 

Fruit  jams  are  made  in  the  same  way  as  marmalades, 
except  that  the  fruit  is  simply  mashed,  and  the  seeds 
and  the  skins  are  left  in  it. 

Rhubarb  Jam  No.  1. 

Seven  pounds  rhubarb,  three  and  one-half  pounds 
sugar,  two  unpeeled  lemons,  sliced  very  thin  and  cut  fine. 
The  rhubarb  is  peeled,  cut  in  inch  pieces,  stewed,  with 
one-half  cup  water,  until  it  is  a  pulp.  Add  sugar  and 
lemons,  and  boil  until  it  is  of  the  consistency  of  jam. 

Rhubarb  Jam  No.  2. 

Wash  rhubarb  clean,  peel,  and  cut  into  lengths.  Put 
to  cook  in  just  enough  water  to  prevent  burning.  Cook 
until  perfectly  soft,  mash  to  a  pulp,  and  continue  the 
cooking  until  it  is  quite  thick.  Stir  to  prevent  scorching. 
Measure  by  the  eye  as  much  sugar  as  there  is  rhubarb, 
and  add  a  teaspoonful  of  ground  ginger  to  each  pint. 
Add  this  and  the  sugar,  well  mixed,  to  the  rhubarb,  and 
cook  until  again  thick,  then  put  into  jars,  and,  when 
cool,  cover  with  hot  paraffine. 


Pickling. 

For  pickles  a  vinegar  of  some  kind  is  necessary.  Cider 
vinegar  is  perfectly  wholesome  and  good  flavored  when 
made  from  good  apples,  and  may  be  wisely  used,  though 
a  scum  will  sometimes  rise  on  the  pickles  made  with  it. 
There  is  in  the  market  a  grape  vinegar  also,  a  red  and 
white  wine  vinegar,  and  a  vinegar  made  in  the  manu- 
facture of  beer,  known  as  "malt  vinegar."  Vinegar  may 
be  made  by  simply  sweetening  boiled  water  and  allowing 
it  to  set  in  a  warm  place,  but  this  is  inferior  to  fruit 


168  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

vinegar.  If  one  wishes  a  vinegar  which  is  colorless  and 
imparts  no  flavor  of  its  own  to  the  articles  preserved  in 
it,  white  wine  vinegar  will  be  found  preferable.  Articles 
pickled  in  this  vinegar  are  remarkably  free  from  scum, 
also.  Some  housekeepers  regard  a  clean  horseradish  leaf 
laid  in  the  jar  on  top  of  the  pickles  a  safeguard  against 
scum  and  other  impurities. 

Watermelon-Rind  Pickles. 

Pare  the  rind  and  cut  into  slices  as  wide  as  the  rind 
is  thick.  Put  the  rind  to  cook  in  boiling  water  in  a 
granite  ware  saucepan,  using  one-half  a  level  teaspoonful 
of  salt  to  each  quart  of  water,  and  cook  until  it  becomes 
translucent.  Drain  off  the  water,  put  the  rind  into  sweet 
pickle  prepared  in  the  manner  given  below,  and  let  boil 
half  an  hour.  Tie  a  cheesecloth  tightly  over  the  top  of 
the  jar,  and  set  away. 

To  Prepare  Vinegar  for  Watermelon-Rind  Pickles. 

For  each  quart  of  good  vinegar  use  three  pints  of  best 
brown  sugar,  and  a  cup  of  mixed  spices,  using  more 
cinnamon  in  proportion  than  allspice  and  cloves,  leaving 
out  the  bay  leaf,  unless  liked.  Boil  these  together  and 
pour  over  the  pickles.  Leave  the  spice  bag  in  the  jar, 
and  keep  down  with  a  small  plate,  or  something  of  the 
kind.  Do  not  have  the  vinegar  too  strong,  but  just  good, 
acid  vinegar. 

Cucumber  Pickles. 

Fill  a  gallon  jar  with  small,  freshly  gathered  cucum- 
bers, sprinkle  lightly  with  salt,  fill  the  jar  with  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  let  stand  until  cold.  Drain  the  water  from  the  cu- 
cumbers, put  them  in  a  preserving  kettle  with  equal  por- 
tions of  cider  vinegar  and  water,  and  heat  to  boiling 
point.  Then  pour  off  the  liquid.  Put  the  cucumbers  in 
the  jar,  add  three  small,  sweet  peppers,  and  half  a  dozen 
whole  cloves.  Cover  with  cold  vinegar,  and  put  away. 
In  a  day  or  two  the  vinegar  should  be  again  scalded 
and  poured  over  the  pickles. 


PICKLING.  169 

Sweet  Cucumber  Pickles. 

To  one  cup  of  vinegar  add  one-half  cup  sugar.  Put  in 
this  two  teaspoonfuls  of  mixed  spices,  tied  in  a  cheesecloth 
bag.  Bring  to  the  boiling  point,  and  turn  over  the  pickles. 
Repeat  the  heating  for  three  different  days,  cover  with  a 
horseradish  leaf,  and  tie  a  cloth  over  the  jar,  leaving  the 
spice  bag  in  it. 

Ripe  Cucumber  Pickles. 

Make  same  as  watermelon-rind  pickles. 

Green  Tomato  Pickles. 

Use  the  same  proportion  of  tomatoes,  sugar,  spices,  and 
celery  as  in  the  chow  chow,  and  proceed  in  the  same 
way,  except  slice  the  tomatoes  instead  of  chopping  them. 

Sweet  Tomato  Pickles. 

Pare  one  pint  of  firm,  green  tomatoes,  put  on  the  stove 
in  equal  parts  of  water  and  vinegar,  and  let  simmer  twen- 
ty-five minutes.  Make  a  syrup  of  one  cup  of  vinegar 
and  one-half  cup  of  sugar.  Put  into  it  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  of  ginger  root,  and  one  inch  of  cinnamon.  Drain 
the  tomatoes  from  the  plain  vinegar  and  water,  put  into 
the  syrup,  and  let  simmer  forty-five  minutes,  then  put 
into  jars  and  set  away. 

Chili  Sauce. 

Three  cups  of  cooked  tomato  or  six  large  tomatoes, 
three  ripe  or  three  green  peppers,  two  onions  (medium 
size),  two  tablespoon fuls  of  salt,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one 
tablespoonful  of  cinnamon,  three  cups  of  vinegar.  Chop 
the  onions,  tomatoes  and  peppers  separately  until  very 
fine,  put  the  ingredients  all  together,  except  the  sugar 
and  cinnamon.  Cook  until  it  thickens  some,  then  add  the 
sugar  and  cinnamon  and  cook  again,  bottle  and  set  away 
for  use. 

Spiced  Tomatoes. 

The  small,  yellow  tomato  is  the  best.  Put  a  quart  of 
vinegar  over  the  fire.  Tie  in  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  three 


170  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

pepper-corns,  half  an  ounce  of  whole  cloves,  and  a  two- 
inch  piece  of  ginger  root.  Weigh  the  tomatoes,  and  add 
to  the  vinegar  with  the  bag  of  spices  half  as  many  pounds 
of  sugar  as  there  are  of  tomatoes.  Prick  the  tomatoes, 
and  when  the  vinegar  boils  again,  put  them  in  and  cook 
until  they  look  clear.  Take  the  tomatoes  out,  boil  the 
liquid  half  an  hour  longer,  pour  over  the  tomatoes  in 
the  jar,  put  the  spice  bag  on  top,  tie  cheesecloth  over,  and 
set  away  with  a  thick  covering  of  paper  on  top. 

Spiced  Plums. 

Make  same  as  spiced  grapes,  except  cook  the  plums 
whole  and  leave  the  pits  in. 

Spiced  Grapes. 

Five  pounds  of  grapes,  one  pint  vinegar,  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  allspice,  four  pounds  of  sugar,  one  tablespoonful 
of  cloves,  one  tablespoonful  of  cinnamon,  one-half  table- 
spoonful  of  mace.  Pulp  grapes  and  heat  slowly  about 
five  minutes.  Turn  into  a  coarse  sieve  and  press  pulps 
through.  Place  skins  -with  this  pulp  and  weigh  the 
whole.  Make  a  syrup  of  the  sugar,  vinegar,  and  spice. 
Boil  the  fruit  in  this  syrup  one-half  hour,  or  until  very 
thick. 

Pickled  Cabbage. 

Select  crisp,  white  cabbage,  and  chop  fine.  To  each 
quart  of  chopped  cabbage  add  a  tablespoonful  each  of 
salt,  white  mustard  seed,  and  sugar,  with  pepper  to 
taste.  Put  the  mixture  in  a  jar,  and  cover  with  cold 
cider  vinegar.  Scatter  half  a  dozen  cloves  over  the  top 
of  the  cabbage,  cover  the  jar,  and  in  a  few  days  the 
pickle  will  be  ready  for  use.  May  let  come  to  a  boil  be- 
fore putting  into  jar. 

Pickled  Peaches  or  Other  Fruits. 

To  one  cup  of  vinegar  add  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of 
sugar,  or,  if  wanted  very  sweet,  one  cup.  Three  inches  of 
stick  cinnamon,  one  teaspoonful  of  whole  cloves,  one  tea- 


PICKLING.  171 

spoonful  of  mustard  seed,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  all- 
spice whole,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  pepper  whole,  one 
inch  of  ginger  root.  Put  the  spices  in  a  bag,  and  heat 
with  the  vinegar,  and  pour  over  the  fruit  as  directed  for 
cucumbers.  Grapes  on  the  stem  are  very  nice  treated 
in  the  same  manner. 

Pickled  Berries. 

Seven  pounds  of  berries,  three  pounds  of  sugar,  one 
and  one-half  pints  of  vinegar,  two  two-inch  sticks  of  cinna- 
mon, one  and  one.-half  tablespoonfuls  of  allspice,  three- 
fourths  of  a  tablespoonful  of  cloves.  Boil  up  sugar,  vine- 
gar, and  spices  together.  Add  the  berries,  and  let  come 
to  a  boil. 

Chow  Chow. 

One-half  peck  of  green  tomatoes,  one-half  cup  of  salt, 
three  small  onions,  one-half  of  a  large  head  of  celery,  two 
quarts  of  chopped  cauliflower,  one-fourth  of  a  medium 
head  of  cabbage,  one  cup  sugar,  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
white  pepper,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  ground  cinnamon,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  ground  allspice,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
ground  mustard,  two  pints  of  good  vinegar.  Chop  the 
tomatoes  fine,  and  let  stand  over  night.  Drain  the  liquid 
off,  chop  the  other  ingredients.  Mix  the  sugar,  salt,  and 
spices.  Use  a  porcelain  lined  or  granite  ware  kettle  for 
cooking.  Put  in  a  layer  of  tomatoes,  then  a  layer  of  the 
other  ingredients  mixed,  alternating  thus  until  all  are 
used.  Put  the  mixture  of  salt,  etc.,  into  the  vinegar, 
heat  boiling  hot,  pour  over  the  contents  of  the  kettle,  and 
cook  until  the  tomatoes  are  tender,  skim  into  a  jar,  and 
cook  more  in  the  same  liquid. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
CONDIMENTS,   SPICES  AND  FLAVORS. 

One  of  the  objects  of  cooking  is  to  develop  flavors,  as 
in  broiling  a  steak,  roasting  coffee,  etc.  Here  the  skill  of 
the  cook  is  tested,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  intensity  and 
continuance  of  heat  is  required.  • 

In  cereals,  dry  beans,  etc.,  the  flavor  depends  largely 
on  the  cooking,  though  a  few  additions  are  made,  as  salt, 
pepper,  etc.  In  order  to  use  such  common  things  as  salt 
and  pepper  wisely,  the  taste  must  be  educated.  There  is 
but  one  object  in  using  such  things,  and  that  is  to  give 
pleasure  to  the  eater.  The  Germans  have  well  named 
them  "enjoyment  givers."  We  are  so  constituted  that  we 
cannot  long  enjoy  anything  fully  if  it  is  used  in  excess, 
hence  the  necessity  for  both  those  who  cook  and  those 
who  eat  to  train  themselves  in  enjoying  the  flavor  of  the 
article  itself,  rather  than  the  salt  and  pepper  or  other 
condiments  or  spices  showered  over  it. 

Flavors  should  always  be  delicate.  A  flavoring  ma- 
terial which  is  added  to  a  food  while  cooking-  is  less 
harmful  than  that  added  at  the  table,  because  the  wise 
cook  uses  only  enough  to  prevent  the  food  being  in- 
sipid,— a  sufficient  amount  to  make  the  mouth  water, — 
while  over-seasoned  food  weakens  digestion  by  over-stim- 
ulating the  secretive  glands,  and  irritating  the  delicate 
membranes  of  the  digestive  tract. 

There  are  many  substances  besides  salt  and  pepper 
which,  added  to  food,  give  variety  of  flavor,  or  a  better 
flavor  to  an  insipid  food.  These  are  usually  classed  un- 
der two  heads, — condiments  and  spices.  Those  which  are 
used  with  meats  are  called  "condiments."  Those  which  are 
combined  with  sugar  and  used  with  fruits  are  called 


CONDIMENTS,   SPICES  AND  FLAVORS.  173 

"spices."  Many  of  these  flavoring  materials  are  of 
vegetable  origin.  Among  them  are  cloves,  allspice,  cin- 
namon, cassia,  nutmeg,  mace,  pepper,  caraway  seed,  celery 
seed,  bay  leaves,  summer  savory,  parsley,  thyme,  sage, 
sweet  marjoram,  mint,  tarragon,  capers  and  curry  pow- 
der. These  are  simply  aromatic,  but  some  are  both  aro- 
matic and  pungent,  as  mustard,  horseradish,  and  ginger. 
Salt  is  chief  among  condiments.  A  little  of  this  heightens 
the  flavor  of  almost  any  food. 

Cloves  are  the  flower  bud  of  an  evergreen  tree  indigen- 
ous to  the  Molucca  or  Spice  islands.  The  clove  tree  is 
cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  Guiana,  but  the  cloves 
off  trees  from  there  are  less  aromatic  than  those  of  the 
Spice  islands. 

Allspice  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies.  It  is  the  green 
berries  of  the  tree,  dried  in  a  rather  low  heat. 

Cinnamon  is  a  bark  stripped  from  the  young  shoots  of  a 
tree  allied  to  the  laurel.  The  inner  bark  only  is  used.  It 
is  very  thin  and  papery  in  appearance,  and  dries  in  small 
tight  rolls,  and  has  a  decidedly  pleasant  and  spicy  taste. 
Cinnamon,  like  most  spices,  comes  from  the  East  In- 
dia islands.  Cassia  bark  resembles  cinnamon  a  little,  but 
the  bark  is  very  much  thicker,  the  rolls  shorter  and  the 
taste  much  less  pleasant,  and  not  nearly  so  strong. 
Cassia  comes  from  China.  In  the  ground  spices,  one  must 
depend  upon  the  taste  to  distinguish  between  cassia  and 
cinnamon. 

The  nutmeg  tree,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  is  grown 
principally  in  the  island  of  Banda.  The  fruit  is  of  a 
yellow  color,  about  the  size  of  a  pear.  It  is  a  drupe  or 
stone  fruit,  and  the  kernel  is  the  portion  used  as  a  spice. 
Mace  is  similar  to  nutmeg,  being  derived  from  the  same 
fruit.  It  is  the  second  coat  which  covers  the  nutmeg.  It 
is  a  thin  membranous  substance  divided  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  a  lace  like  effect.  It  is  used  in  the  same  way  as 
nutmeg. 


174  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Pepper  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  the  island  of 
Penang  producing  it  in  largest  quantity.  The  cultivation 
of  pepper  has  been  introduced  into  the  West  Indies.  Pep- 
per is  the  fruit  of  a  vine,  and  is  gathered  before  it  is  ripe, 
which  gives  a  wrinkled  appearance  when  dry.  White  and 
black  pepper  are  made  from  the  same  berry,  the  white 
having  the  dark  outer  covering  removed  before  it  is 
ground.  White  pepper  is  preferable  for  all  uses  in  which 
black  or  white  pepper  are  chosen.  Red  pepper  or  cayenne 
pepper  is  very  pungent.  It  is  the  product  of  a  species  of 
capsicum.  Paprica  is  also  a  product  of  capsicum,  the 
cayenne  pepper  being  the  strongest,  and  the  paprica  the 
mildest,  variety.  Our  garden  pepper  may  well  be  sub- 
stituted for  both.  The  common  red  pepper  is  very  strong, 
and  what  is  known  as  "sweet  pepper"  is  very  much  milder. 

The  caraway  plant  grows  wild  in  Europe  and  Asia.  It 
is  cultivated  for  its  aromatic  seeds,  which  are  used  for 
spicing  cookies,  cheese,  and  rye  bread. 

Celery  is  a  plant  very  susceptible  to  cultivation  and 
the  tender  white  stalks  found  in  our  gardens  bear  little 
resemblance  to  the  wild  celery  of  Europe.  There  are  few 
plants  which  are  so  near  wholly  edible  as  celery.  The 
dainty  green  tops  are  used  for  garnishes  especially  with 
salads.  The  coarser  green  parts  are  used  with  the  roots 
for  flavoring  soups.  The  tougher  white  parts  make  a 
delicious  cream  soup,  while  the  tender  white  portions  are 
delicious  just  as  they  are.  The  seeds  of  celery  are  used  to 
flavor  soups,  croquettes,  etc. 

Bay  leaves  are  the  dried  leaves  of  a  shrub  growing  in 
the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean  sea.  Bay 
leaves  are  used  for  flavoring  soups,  pickles  and  some- 
times stews. 

Summer  savory  is  a  hardy  annual  which  grows  wild  in 
Southern  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  our  gardens.  It  is 
used  mostly  for  seasoning  sausages  and  gravies. 


CONDIMENTS,  SPICES  AND  FLAVORS.  175 

Parsley  has  been  much  improved  by  cultivation  since  it 
left  its  native  Sardinia.  It  is  much  used  for  seasoning 
soups  and  salads,  and  is  a  very  great  favorite  as  a  gar- 
nish. The  curly  variety  is  preferable. 

Thyme  is  a  pungent  aromatic  plant,  and  is  used  for 
flavoring  soups. 

Sage  is  a  plant  with  light  green  leaves,  common  in 
our  gardens,  and  is  often  freely  used  in  flavoring  sausages 
and  dressing  for  fowls. 

Sweet  marjoram  grows  wild  in  Spain  and  is  cultivated 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  It  is  a  pungent  and 
aromatic  plant  of  the  mint  family,  used  mostly  in  soups. 

Spearmint  is  a  member  of  the  mint  family,  used  much 
in  cookery,  and  is  relished  in  a  mint  sauce  for  a  lamb,  roast. 
It  gives  piquancy  to  an  ice.  Mint  may  be  used  also  in 
making  a  sauce  for  fish  or  fowl,  but  is  not  so  generally 
used  in  this  way. 

Tarragon  is  a  small  aromatic  plant,  native  of  Liberia. 
It  is  used  for  flavoring  vinegars,  which,  in  turn,  give  va- 
riety in  salad  dressings. 

Capers  are  the  unopened  flowers  of  a  trailing  plant, 
which,  like  tarragon,  is  a  native  of  Africa.  It  also  grows 
wild  in  Southern  Europe.  It  is  cultivated  in  France.  The 
small  green  berries  only  are  used.  These  are  preserved  in 
salt  and  vinegar,  and  are  used  in  salads  and  meat  sauces. 
The  smaller  capers  are  best. 

Curry  powder  is  a  manufactured  condiment.  Many  of 
the  above  described  ingredients  enter  into  its  composition, 
and  all  are  finely  ground  and  thoroughly  mixed. 

Mustard  is  a  common  plant,  and  some  varieties  of  it 
grow  plentifully  in  neglected  places  in  our  own  country. 
There  are  two  varieties  of  mustard, — the  black  and  the 
white.  The  black  mustard  has  small  black  seeds.  The 
white  variety  has  larger  yellow  seeds.  The  seeds  of  both 
varieties  are  used  whole  in  making  pickles,  but  the  white 
are  preferable  in  most  cases.  Ground  mustard  is  desirable 


176  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

for  seasoning  salads.  This  is  often  adulterated,  but  one 
can  judge  whether  genuine  by  the  dull  yellow  appearance, 
and  the  very  pungent  odor  of  pure  mustard.  When  good 
mustard  is  wet  with  cold  water,  it  will  affect  the  eyes, 
like  peeling  a  raw  onion. 

Horseradish  is  a  well-known  plant,  possessing  a  very 
pungent  odor.  It  can  be  grated  in  its  season,  bottled  in 
vinegar,  and  kept  tightly  corked  for  use  later  in  the  year. 

Ginger  is  used  mostly  in  pickles,  beverages  and  desserts. 
The  young  and  succulent  roots  are  preserved  in  sugar  or 
dried.  Powdered  ginger  should  be  free  from  woody  fiber. 
Ginger  comes  from  both  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

Many  of  these  aromatic  plants  can  be  easily  grown  in 
our  kitchen  gardens,  and  it  is  far  wiser  to  grow  these  than 
to  depend  on  the  market  for  every  bouquet  of  herbs  and 
all  salad  seasoning  we  may  wish. 

References:     Food  Products  of  the  World — Green — pp.  83- 
103;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  122,  pp.  16-18. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 

MEATS. 

Animal  foods  contain  practically  the  same  classes  of 
nutrients  as  are  found  in  vegetable  foods.  The  protein  in 
meat  differs  from  that  in  vegetables  in  three  ways.  It  is 
more  abundant,  more  easily  digestible,  and  very  different 
in  appearance.  This  compound  in  meat  is  considered  un- 
der the  three  heads  of  albuminoids,  gelatinoids,  and  ex- 
tractives. The  albuminoids  are  the  chief  flesh  formers  of 
meat.  They  are  capable  of  forming  muscle,  tendon  and  fat, 
and  of  yielding  energy  in  the  form  of  heat  and  muscular 
strength.  So  far  as  scientists  have  yet  learned,  gelatinoids 
cannot  be  said  to  change  to  the  composition  of  albumin- 
oids, but  they  do  protect  the  albuminoids  from  being  con- 
sumed. The  extractives  give  flavor  to  the  meat  and  pre- 
sumably tone  to  the  system.  That  these  cannot  build  tis- 
sue nor  furnish  heat  to  the  body  is  believed  to  be  an  estab- 
lished fact.  Scientists  and  medical  men  agree  that  they  do 
serve  a  purpose,  but  just  what  that  is  they  cannot  explain. 
The  extractives  seem  to  exert  some  action  on  the  nervous 
system  which  aids  the  body  in  making  use  of  the  food  con- 
sumed. Scientists  are  of  the  opinion  that  "flavoring  ma- 
terials and  an  agreeable  appearance  do  not  directly  in- 
crease thoroughness  of  digestion,  but  serve  to  stimulate 
the  digestive  organs  to  greater  activity  as  regards  the 
actual  amount  digested.  This  stimulation  is  probably  not 
of  so  great  moment  as  is  commonly  supposed.  Meat  that 
has  been  extracted  with  water  so  as  to  be  entirely  taste- 
less has  been  found  in  actual  experiment  to  be  as  quickly 
and  completely  digested  as  an  equal  weight  of  meat 


178  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

roasted  in  the  usual  way."*  There  seems  to  be  inherent 
in  man  a  desire  for  flavor.  Dr.  Livingston  tells  us  that 
the  savages  in  the  wilds  of  Africa  throw  the  meat  over 
the  coals  long  enough  to  sear  it  a  little,  then  swallow  it, 
hot,  but  it  has  a  different  flavor,  though  nearly  raw. 

The  value  of  meat  for  food  depends  in  part  upon  the 
proportion  of  protein  to  fat.  While  the  protein  can  take 
the  place  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  nothing  else  can  do 
the  work  of  the  proteids.  It  is  not  wise  to  allow  the  pro- 
teids  to  take  the  place  of  the  other  elements  of  food,  be- 
cause the  changing  necessary  to  fit  them  for  use  entails  too 
much  work  on  the  organs,  and  it  is  substituting  the  more 
expensive  for  the  much  cheaper  food  substances.  Neither 
is  it  wise  to  attempt  to  wholly  substitute  vegetable  protein 
for  animal  protein.  The  nutrients  in  vegetables  are  en- 
closed in  woody  fibre  which  resists  the  action  of  the  diges- 
tive juices,  and  probably  oft-times  hastens  the  food  along 
the  digestive  tract  too  rapidly,  owing  to  its  irritating  ac- 
tion on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  intestines,  to  insure 
complete  digestibility.  The  fat  in  meat  performs  the 
same  office  as  starch,  sugar,  and  digested  cellulose  in  vege- 
table foods.  It  forms  fatty  tissue,  or  serves  as  fuel,  and 
yields  energy  in  the  form  of  heat  and  muscular  strength. 
There  is  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  digestibility  of 
animal  and  vegetable  fats.  Animal  foods  contain  much 
more  fat  than  vegetable  foods. 

The  following  charts  are  from  "Meats  for  Farm 
Use." — Andrew  Boss,  Associate  Professor  of  Agricul- 
ture, University  of  Minnesota. 

Beef— Uses  of  Cuts. 

The  seven  best  ribs  are  used  for  oven  roasts.  The 
chuck  ribs  are  used  for  shoulder  steaks,  pot  roasts  and 
boiling  pieces,  and  when  from  first-class  beef  animals 
they  make  good  oven  roasts.  When  used  for  oven  roasts 
or  steaks,  they  should  be  cut  parallel  to  the  ribs.  For  pot 
roasts  and  boiling  pieces  they  should  be  cut  across  the 

*U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34 
—p.  17. 


MEATS.  179 

ribs.  The  shoulder  is  best  for  boiling  pieces,  or  pot 
roasts,  the  neck  for  mincemeat  or  stews.  The  plate  is 
used  for  stewing  and  is  frequently  corned.  The  cross 
ribs  make  good  pot  roasts  or  boiling  pieces.  The  loin  is 
usually  cut  into  steaks,  though  it  makes  prime  roasts  and 
is  often  so  used.  When  cut  into  steaks,  it  is  customary 
to  begin  at  the  back  end  and  cut  slices  parallel  to  the  line 
N.  P.  The  first  seven  or  eight  slices  taken  off  are  known 
as  sirloin  steaks.  From  the  hook  points  or  hip  bone  for- 
ward to  the  end  of  the  tenderloin  muscle  lying  on  the 
underside. of  floating  ribs,  the  porterhouse  steaks  are  cut. 
A  few  slices  of  tip  end  sirloin  may  be  cut  off  the  front  end 
of  the  loin  just  before  reaching  the  rib.  The  steaks  from 


Side  of  Beef— Names  of  Cuts. 

both  butt  end  and  tip  end  of  sirloin  are  inferior  to  those 
where  the  tenderloin  lies,  and  the  ones  cut  from  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  loin  where  the  tenderloin  is  largest  are 
superior  to  all  others  from  the  point  of  tenderness,  but  in 
flavor  and  food  value  they  are  no  better.  The  rib  is 
used  for  a  small  roast.  The  rump  is  used  for  roasting, 
corning  or  pot  roasts  and  is  usually  cut  up  into  pieces  run- 
ning parallel  to  the  line  P.  Q.  The  upper  part  of  the 
round  is  used  for  steaks,  the  lower  part  for  boiling.  The 
lower  part  of  the  round  is  frequently  run  through  a  sau- 
sage cutter  and  made  into  Hamburg  steak.  The  flank  is 
used  for  stewing,  the  shank  and  shin  for  soup.  The 
shank  is  the  better  piece  because  it  has  more  meat  usually. 


180  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Comparative  Value  of  the  Cuts  of  Beef. 

The  loin  cut  of  beef  is  looked  upon  as  being  the 
choicest  cut,  with  the  best  ribs  ranking  second.  Then 
follow  in  order  the  round,  chuck  ribs,  rump,  cross  ribs, 
shoulder,  plate,  flank  and  neck.  From  the  standpoint  of 
actual  food  value,  this  comparison  does  not  hold  good,  for 
we  find  on  comparison  of  the  food  nutrients  in  the  differ- 
ent cuts  that  some  of  the  so-called  inferior  joints  are 
really  as  valuable  as  the  higher-priced  and  more  popular 
portions.  The  chuck  rib,  for  instance,  contains  almost 
the  same  amount  of  nutrients  as  the  loin,  and  the  nutrients 
are  in  just  as  digestible  form.  The  chuck  ribs  can  be 
bought  at  eight  cents  per  pound  when  the  loin  is  twelve 
cents  per  pound.  The  best  ribs  at  ten  cents  furnish  con- 
siderably less  nutritive  material  than  the  chuck.  The 
round  at  eight  cents  supplies  even  more  nutriment  than 
any  of  the  fore-mentioned  cuts.  The  rump  is  also  a  very 
economical  cut  to  buy  when  its  food  value  is  considered. 
The  plate,  neck,  shank,  etc.,  contain  a  fair  quantity  of 
nutrients,  but  are  not  so  palatable,  nor  can  they  be  cut 
into  steaks  and  roasts,  and  are  not  so  popular  for  this  rea- 
son. 


S'HWK. 

SPIN  BREAST 

Side  of  Veal— Names  of  Cuts. 

Veal— TIses  of  Cuts. 

The  shank  of  veal  is  used  for  soups.  The  best  end  of 
loin  is  used  for  roasts  and  chops.  The  scrag  end  of 
neck  is  used  for  boiling.  The  breast  of  veal  is  used  for 
stew.  The  flank  is  also  used  for  stew.  The  chump  end 


MEATS. 


181 


of  loin  is  used  for  roasts.     The  fillet  is  used  for  roasts  and 
steaks.     The  neck  is  used  for  broth. 

Pork— Uses  of  Cuts. 

The  ham  is  generally  pickled  and  smoked,  though  it  is 
sometimes  cut  into  pork  steak  when  fresh.  The  shoulder 
may  be  either  used  as  steak,  cured -as  ham,  or  it  may  be 
ground  into  sausage  meat.  The  choicest  meat  is  ob- 
tained from  the  loin.  The  loin  is  used  as  a  roast  or  is  cut 
into  pork  chops.  Pork  chops  are  cut  parallel  to  the  ribs 
and  should  be  three-eighths  to  one-half  an  inch  thick. 


Side  of  Pork— Names  of  Cuts. 


The  spare  rib  is  considered  a  very  choice  portion  when 
broiled  in  the  oven  or  when  stuffed  and  roasted.  The 
back  strip  of  side  meat  is  sometimes  made  into  salt  pork, 
but,  as  it  is  nearly  clear  fat,  it  is  best  to  try  it  up  into  lard. 
The  middle  strip  makes  a  second-class  quality  of  bacon  or 
salt  pork,  but  the  third  or  lower  strip  is  considered  best 
for  this  purpose,  as  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  of 
lean  meat. 

Mutton— Uses  of  Cuts. 

The  loin,  which  is  usually  considered  the  choicest  cut 
of  mutton,  may  be  used  either  for  an  oven  roast  or  for 
mutton  chops.  When  used  as  an  oven  roast,  it  is  roasted 
without  any  further  cutting,  except  to  crack  the  joints  in 


182 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


the  backbone  with  a  cleaver,  to  facilitate  carving  at  the 
table.  Chops  are  cut  from  this  joint  in  slices  parallel  to 
the  line  A.  K.  They  should  be  cut  from  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  rack  is  considered 
second  in  quality  and  is  usually  cut  into  chops  for  broiling 
or  pan  broiling  or  braising. 

The  chops  should  be  cut  one  inch  thick,  leaving  one  rib 
in  each  chop.  They  should  be  cut  parallel  with  the  ribs 
and  cut  off  at  the  block  with  a  cleaver.  The  leg,  with- 
out further  subdividing  than  to  remove  the  tail  and 


RAC* 


uo 

BREAST 

Side  of  Mutton — Names  of  Cuts. 

scraggy  parts  is  used  for  oven  roasts  or  for  boiling.  The 
shoulder  should  have  the  joints  in  the  ribs  cracked,  and 
the  ribs  themselves  broken  on  the  inside  at  the  middle.  It 
may  then  be  used  for  an  oven  roast  if  the  animal  is  a 
young  one,  otherwise  it  should  be  used 'for  boiling.  The 
neck  makes  choice  mutton  broth,  and  the  breast  and  flank 
may  be  used  in  the  same  way,  or  they  may  all  be  used  for 
stews. 


Cuts  of  Lamb  and  Their  Uses. 

The  cuts  of  lamb  are  very  similar  to  those  of  mutton, 
though  in  some  cases  they  have  different  names.  The 
cuts  of  lamb  are:  Neck,  shoulder,  chuck,  breast,  saddle 
and  leg.  The  saddle  includes  the  loin  and  a  portion  of 


MEATS.  183 

that  part  known  in  mutton  as  rack,  and  extends  from  the 
aitch  bone  nearly  to  the  chuck  (sixth  or  seventh  rib). 
The  chuck  begins  about  the  fourth  rib  and  extends  to  the 
saddle. 

The  neck  and  all  trimmings  are  used  for  broth.  The 
breast  of  lamb  is  usually  braised  or  similarly  prepared. 
The  saddle  is  used  for  an  oven  roast  or  cut  into  chops. 
The  chops  from  the  rib  portion  are  called  rib  chops  or 
French  chops,  and  those  from  the  loin  are  called  loin 
chops.  Lamb  chops  are  used  for  broiling. 

The  rib  piece  is  sometimes  made  into  a  roast  known  as 
crown  of  lamb. 

The  leg  of  lamb  is  used  for  an  oven  roast.  The  shoul- 
der is  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  leg,  though  it  makes  a 
much  poorer  roast. 

Good  Recipe  for  Corning  Beef. 

To  every  one  hundred  pounds  of  beef,  weigh  out  eight 
pounds  of  ground  rock  salt  if  it  can  be  had ;  if  not,  com- 
mon salt  may  be  used.  Cover  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
with  a  layer  of  salt  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep  and  then 
pack  in  a  layer  of  meat  as  compactly  as  possible,  leaving 
it  level  on  top.  Cover  this  with  a  layer  of  salt  and  a 
layer  of  meat  until  all  is  used,  proportioning  the  layers  so 
that  the  eight  pounds  of  salt  will  be  used  up  at  the  same 
time  that  the  hundred  pounds  of  meat  is  all  in.  Allow 
the  meat  to  stand  in  the  salt  over  night.  The  next  day 
dissolve  two  ounces  of  saltpetre,  four  ounces  of  salera- 
tus  and  four  pounds  of  sugar  in  a  little  warm  water  and 
turn  it  over  the  meat.  Add  cold  water  until  the  meat  is 
covered.  Put  a  loose  cover  or  board  over  the  meat  and 
weight  it  down  to  keep  the  meat  entirely  under  the  brine. 
Keep  in  a  cool,  dry  cellar.  If,  at  any  time,  the  brine  be- 
comes slimy  or  ropy  it  should  be  turned  off,  the  meat 
should  be  washed  and  a  new  brine  made. 

BOILING  AND   STEWING   MEATS. 
The  term  "boiling,"  as  used  in  cookery,  means  cooking 


184  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

in  a  liquid  which  is  kept  at  the  boiling  point.  If  the  nu- 
triment is  to  be  kept  in,  as  in  boiled  meat,  the  piece  of  meat 
should  be  left  intact,  so  that  as  little  surface  as  possible  be 
exposed,  and  plunged  into  boiling  water,  and  when  the 
contents  of  the  kettle  have  again  reached  the  boiling  point, 
moved  where  it  will  remain  near  the  boiling  point,  but  will 
not  boil  rapidly. 

When  meat  is  plunged  into  boiling  water  the  albumen 
near  the  surface  is  coagulated,  thus  forming  a  coating 
which  shuts  in  the  juices  somewhat,  and  as  the  heat  pene- 
trates to  the  interior  of  the  meat,  the  juices  bathing  the  tis- 
sues become  hot,  and  when  the  meat  is  served,  a  slice  only 
a  short  distance  from  the  outer  surface  is  found  tender 
and  juicy,  the  tiny  bundles  of  fibres  having  been  cooked 
in  the  natural  medium. 

If  the  object  is  to  have  the  flavor  as  nearly  as  possible 
all  in  the  liquid,  as  in  soups  and  in  meat  teas,  cut  the  meat 
in  small  pieces,  soak  in  plenty  of  cold  water  for  a  time,  and 
heat  slowly,  never  boiling,  but  merely  simmering,  in  order 
that  the  juices  may  be  drawn  out  as  thoroughly  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  stewing  meats,  the  object  is  to  have  the  nutriment 
partly  in  the  liquid  and  partly  in  the  meat.  In  this  case, 
cut  the  meat  into  pieces  suitable  for  serving,  put  into  the 
kettle,  and  pour  on  a  small  quantity  of  hot  water,  cover 
closely,  and  allow  to  cook  slowly  but  unceasingly  until 
tender,  which  will  give  nice,  juicy  meat,  and  gravy  of 
good  quality. 

Caper  Sauce. 

Use  mutton  soup  stock  and  thicken  with  butter  and 
flour, — one  tablespoonful  of  flour  and  one  tablespoonful 
of  butter  to  one  cup  of  liquid.  Put  the  butter  and  flour 
into  a  sauce  pan  and  heat  over  the  fire  until  the  butter 
melts,  but  not  until  it  browns.  Turn  into  this  the  cold 
broth,  stirring  constantly  until  it  boils.  Put  in  capers 


MEATS.  185 

last,  a  scant  one-quarter  of  a  cup  to  a  cup  of  liquid. 
Serve  with  boiled  mutton. 

Parsley  Sauce. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  put  in  one  generous  table- 
spoonful  of  finely  minced  parsley  instead  of  capers.  Serve 
with  boiled  mutton. 

To  Boil  a  Leg  of  Mutton. 

Remove  the  outer  skin,  as  this  often  gives  an  unpleasant 
flavor.  Be  careful  not  to  cut  the  meat  while  peeling  off 
the  outer  covering.  See  that  the  meat  is  clean,  then  sear 
the  cut  surfaces  on  a  hot  spider.  Have  boiling  in  the 
kettle  a  quart  or  three  pints  of  water.  Plunge  the  joint 
into  it,  and  cover  closely,  allowing  the  steam  to  help  in 
the  cooking.  Just  the  amount  of  water  needed  cannot  be 
given,  because  the  size  of  the  kettle  and  the  age  of  the 
meat  will  influence  this  matter.  Have  enough  so  that 
the  meat  will  not  burn,  and  there  will  be  just  enough  left 
to  make  the  sauce.  Set  the  kettle  over  a  hot  fire  until  the 
water  boils,  then  move  to  where  it  will  keep  near  the  boil- 
ing point,  but  will  not  boil  hard.  Boiled  meats  should  be 
salted  half  an  hour  before  removing  from  fire. 
Egg  Sauce. 

Make  the  drawn  butter  sauce  as  directed  on  page  200, 
using  mutton  broth  for  the  liquid.  Season  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  add  one  large  or  two  very  small  hard-boiled 
eggs,  chopped  fine.  Serve  with  boiled  mutton. 

To  Cook  Breast  of  Lamb. 

Remove  the  outer  skin,  which  is  apt  to  make  the  meat 
taste  woolly  if  left  on,  see  that  the  meat  is  clean  and  put 
whole  into  the  kettle  and  stew  until  the  bones  will  slip, 
then  remove  them,  put  the  meat  in  a  dripping  pan,  set  it 
in  the  oven,  cover  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  cook  until 
brown  and  tender.  Make  a  gravy  of  the  broth  left  in  the 
kettle,  and  serve  with  the  lamb. 


186  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Breast  of  Lamb  with  Tomato  Sauce. 

Proceed  same  as  before  until  ready  to  make  the  gravy, 
then  add  as  much  tomato  as  broth  in  making  the  gravy. 

To  Cook  Sweetbreads. 

Soak  in  salt  and  water  to  make  clear  and  white,  then 
cook  in  boiling  water  until  tender,  and  let  cool  in  the 
water  in  which  they  were  cooked.  Serve  with  a  mush- 
room sauce  or  a  white  sauce. 

To  Cook  Corned  Beef. 

Soak  in  cold  water  until  sufficiently  freshened.  Then 
put  into  a  sufficient  quantity  of  boiling  water  to  prevent 
burning.  Cook  until  tender.  Cabbage,  cauliflower,  tur- 
nips, spinach,  beans  or  carrots  may  be  appropriately 
served  with  corned  beef.  When  one  desires,  part  of  the 
water  in  which  the  beef  is  cooking  may  be  poured  into 
another  kettle,  and  the  vegetables  cooked  in  it.  The 
meat  flavor  which  the  vegetable  takes  renders  it  more 
palatable,  and  not  less  wholesome. 

To  Boil  Hani. 

If  the  ham  is  moldy,  scrape  with  a  dull  knife  until 
clean,  and  saw  off  the  bone,  if  necessary,  then  soak,  skin 
side  up,  in  cold  water,  wash  with  brush,  wipe  dry,  and  put 
to  cook,  skin  side  down,  in  boiling  water.  Cook  until  ten- 
der, usually  about  twenty  minutes  to  the  inch.  If  to  be 
served  cold,  let  remain  in  water  in  which  it  is  cooked  until 
cold,  then  skin,  slice  thin,  and  serve.  Or,  after  the  skin  is 
removed,  cover  with  bread  crumbs,  moisten  with  sugar 
and  vinegar,  and  brown.  If  to  be  served  hot,  take  from 
vessel  in  which  cooked  as  soon  as  done,  remove  the  skin, 
slice,  and  serve.  Ham,  if  from  a  young  animal,  ma>-  be 
wrapped  in  dough  and  baked. 

To  Stew  a  Fowl. 

Cut  the  fowl  into  pieces  suitable  for  serving.  Put  in  the 
back,  the  rib  piece,  the  drumsticks,  and  all  pieces  which 
require  the  longest  cooking,  in  order  of  their  time  to 


MEATS.  187 

become  tender,  put  the  breast  on  top,  and  pour  over  just 
enough  hot  water  to  prevent  burning  while  the  fowl 
cooks.  Cover  closely,  and  when  it  boils  move  back  where 
it  will  cook  slowly.  Salt  when  nearly  done.  When  done, 
remove  the  meat,  add  milk  or  chicken  broth  to  make 
gravy. 

A  small  onion  and  a  blade  of  mace,  big  as  the  thumb 
nail,  stewed  with  an  old  hen,  brings  out  the  flavor.  Celery 
is  next  to  onion  in  its  ability  to  mix  with  things  univer- 
sally, and  parsley  comes  next  on  the  list.  Celery  is  prefer- 
able to  any  other  flavoring  with  boiled  chicken  or  turkey, 
the  other  is  used  for  variety.  Parsley  may  always  be 
used  with  stewed  chicken  with  drawn  butter  sauce.  Cel- 
ery, oyster,  lemon,  or  caper  sauce  is  appropriate  with 
boiled  fowl. 

To  Fricassee  a  Fowl. 

A  fricassee  differs  from  a  stew  in  this  particular  only, 
— the  meat  is  browned  before  the  water  is  put  in  the  ket- 
tle. 

Veal  Pot  Pie. 

Cut  the  veal  in  medium-sized  pieces  and  simmer  in  a 
small  quantity  of  water  for  an  hour.  Always  choose  fat 
veal.  Pour  off  most  of  the  water,  but  leave  enough  to 
cook  dumplings,  then  thicken  and  season  the  poured-off 
broth,  lift  the  dumplings  carefully,  and  pour  over  them 
the  gravy. 

Dumplings. 

Class  rule :  One-half  cup  of  flour,  one-eighth  teaspoon- 
ful  salt,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  one-quar- 
ter cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  butter. 

Home  rule :  Two  cups  of  flour,  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  four  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  four  teaspoonfuls  of  butter  or  lard. 

Mix  the  baking  powder  with  a  little  of  the  flour.  Rub 
into  the  remaining  flour  the  butter,  add  the  salt  and  the 


188  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

baking  powder,  then  put  in  the  milk,  stirring  as  little  as 
possible.  Flour  the  molding  board,  turn  the  dumplings 
onto  it,  and,  without  kneading,  roll  and  cut  into  shapes, 
and  put  to  cook,  or  drop  into  kettle  from  a  spoon. 

To  Cook  Tongue. 

Soak  in  plenty  of  cold  water  until  sufficiently  fresh- 
ened, then  skewer  the  two  ends  together  and  put  into  boil- 
ing water  and  cook  gently  until  tender.  Remove  from 
the  water  in  which  it  has  been  cooked,  plunge  into  cold 


Beef  Round. 

water,  and  let  lie  a  few  minutes.  Then  cut  the  skin  on 
the  under  side  and  peel  it  back  both  ways.  Serve  with  a 
brown  tomato  sauce  made  in  the  following  manner: 
Brown  together  in  the  saucepan  one  and  one-half  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter  and  two  of  flour,  add  one-half  a  cup  of 
brown  soup  stock,  and  one-half  cup  strained  tomato,  cold. 
Stir  constantly  until  it  has  boiled  a  few  minutes.  Thicken 
with  one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  stirred  into 
a  little  water.  Smoked  tongue  is  better  than  pickled 
tongue.  If  fresh  tongue  is  used  no  soaking  is  neces- 
sary. 


MEATS.  189 

To  Prepare  a  Calf's  or  Sheep's  Head. 

Soak  and  clean  thoroughly,  put  into  boiling  salted 
water,  and  cook  until  tender.  Take  off  all  edible  meat, 
and  chop  with  the  brains.  Season  to  taste  with  onions, 
salt  and  pepper,  moisten  with  white  sauce  (page  53), 
cover  with  buttered  crumbs,  brown  in  the  oven,  and  serve 
hot. 

To  Cook  a  Pot  Roast  of  Beef. 

Choose  a  cut  which  is  too  tough  for  an  oven  roast.  The 
crossrib  cut  is  usually  so.  Sear  the  cut  surfaces,  and  stew 
in  a  very  little  water  until  tender.  Then  let  the  water 
cook  entirely  out,  and  brown  the  rrfeat  in  the  kettle. 


Last  Cut  Round  Steak. 
BROILING. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  some  articles  of  food 
should  be  broiled,  or  why  broiled  food  should  sometimes 
be  eaten.  One  important  reason  is  that  some  articles  of 
food  are  cooked  most  perfectly  in  this  way.  Another  rea- 
son is  that  man  desires  variety  in  the  manner  of  cooking 
his  food,  as  well  as  in  the  articles  constituting  his  diet. 
Broiling  is  a  sudden  searing  and  browning  of  the  surface 
of  the  food.  Cooking  the  food  on  the  outside  thus  quick- 


190 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


ly  hardens  the  albumen,  and  forms  a  coating  over 
the  surface,  shutting  in  the  juices,  and  the  seared 
surface  is  kept  intact  by  frequent  turning  as  the  food 
cooks.  Broiling  can  be  done  over  a  clear  blaze,  or  on  a 
bed  of  live  coals,  but  the  use  of  the  broiler  or  gridiron 
simplifies  the  matter  very  much.  Where  much  broiling 
is  done  a  charcoal  burner  is  desirable,  but  for  the  ordinary 
family  the  light  wire  broiler  or  toaster  is  well  adapted  to 
the  purpose.  In  order  to  use  such  a  broiler  over  the  fire 
in  the  common  range  or  cook  stove,  have  a  clear  bright 
fire,  and  open  the  main  damper,  so  as  to  create  a  good 
draft  and  allow  the  escape  of  smoke. 


Wedge  Bone  Sirloin  of  Beef. 

To  Broil  a  Chop  or  Steak. 

Remove  one  of  the  front  griddles  and  place  the  article 
to  be  broiled  in  the  broiler  over  the  open  fire.  Turn 
the  broiler  frequently  to  prevent  the  meat  burning,  and 
to  keep  the  juices  from  being  forced  through  the  surface, 
and  also  to  cause  it  to  cook  evenly  on  both  sides.  If  the 
drippings  from  the  fat  of  the  meat  create  a  blaze  remove 
the  broiler  a  minute  until  the  blaze  subsides.  A  deep 
cover  laid  over  the  meat  will  retain  the  heat  and  facilitate 
the  broiling.  When  the  fire  becomes  dull,  if  coal  is  used, 
add  a  sprinkle  of  fresh  coal,  replace  the  griddle,  and  use 
the  other  side  of  the  stove,  which,  having  been  protected 


MEATS.  191 

from  the  air,  will  be  clear  and  bright.  Both  griddles 
should  never  be  removed  at  once,  because,  in  order  to  con- 
tinue broiling  there  must  be  an  opportunity  to  change  the 
broiler  frequently  to  a  hot  fire.  A  steak  three-quarters  of 
an  inch  thick  will  cook  in  eight  minutes,  and  should  be 
turned  about  twenty  times.  Such  a  steak,  of  course,  will 
be  rare,  but  Prof.  Atwater  says  that  raw  meat  is  more 
quickly  and  completely  digested  than  meat  boiled,  roasted, 
or  smoked,  but  the  flavor  induced  by  cooking  excites  the 
secretion  of  digestive  juices,  thus  facilitating  the  further 


Short   Loin.     Beef. 

disintegration  in  the  alimentary  canal.  The  above  seems 
an  argument  in  favor  of  acquiring  a  taste  for  rare  meat  if 
one  desires  tne  best  results,  as  this  Combines  the  easy  di- 
gestion of  the  raw  meat  with  the  rich  appetizing  flavor 
•developed  by  cooking. 

Experiment  has  proven  that  a  steak  one  and  one-half 
inches  thick  may  be  successfully  broiled  in  a  hot  oven  if 
seared  on  both  sides  before  being  placed  in  the  oven.  It 
should  remain  in  the  oven  about  eight  minutes.  If  a  steak 
is  fat,  butter  does  not  improve  it. 


192        .  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  Pan  Broil  a  Steak  or  Chop. 

Before  broiling  a  steak  in  any  way,  remove  the  tough 
outer  edge,  as  it  is  apt  to  curl,  and  is  better  off.  Remove 
the  outer  skin  from  a  mutton  chop  because  the  flavor 
is  better.  Have  a  common  griddle  or  spider  smoking  hot, 
and  put  the  meat  on  it  without  grease  of  any  kind.  Let 
cook  until  it  loosens  from  the  spider,  then  turn  and  sear 
on  the  other  side.  After  that,  turn  it  very  often  until  it 
is  done  as  much  as  you  wish  to  have  it.  It  is  better  never 
to  have  a  steak  cut  less  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick, 
as  a  thin  steak  is  very  dry,  and  has  not  so  good  a  flavor  as 
a  thicker  one.  When  the  steak  or  chop  is  ready  to  remove 
from  the  griddle,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  if  the 
steak  is  lean,  put  a  little  butter  on  a  warm  platter  with 
the  salt  and  pepper,  lay  the  steak  on  these  a  minute,  then 
turn  it  over.  Always  serve  a  broiled  steak  at  once. 

To  Broil  Hamburg  Steak- 

The  round  steak,  which  is  used  for  hamburg,  should  be 
chopped  very  fine  and  made  into  cakes  not  more  than  one 
and  one-quarter  inches  thick.  Have  a  spider,  smoking  hot, 
put  a  small  piece  of  butter  in  the  spider  and  lay  the  ham- 
burg  on  this.  When  nicely  browned,  and  before  the 
juices  begin  to  exude,  put  a  bit  of  butter  on  the  upper  side 
of  the  steak,  and  with  a  limber  knife  carefully  turn  and 
brown  it  on  that  side.  It  should  be  turned  as  you  would 
any  steak'until  done  as  desired.  Do  not  cook  too  much, 
or  the  steak  will  be  dry  and  tasteless.  When  done,  lift  to 
a  warm  platter,  sprinkle  with  salt,  and  serve. 

To  Broil  a  Chicken. 

To  prepare  a  chicken  for  broiling,  split  down  the  back 
and  cut  off  a  part  of  the  backbone  in  order  that  the 
chicken  may  lay  flat,  and  press  it  with  the  rolling  pin  to 
flatten  the  breast  bone  somewhat.  Put  in  a  wire  broiler 
over  the  fire  inside  down,  and  broil  as  a  steak.  A  small, 
young  chicken,  and  no  other,  is  fit  for  broiling.  It  will 
cook  over  a  brisk  fire  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes. 


MEATS.  193 

If  the  fire  is  not  in  good  condition,  the  chicken  will  be  im- 
perfectly cooked  and  dry. 

To  Broil  a  Chicken  in  the  Oven, 

Lay  the  chicken,  prepared  as  above,  in  a  pan  or  spider 
just  large  enough  to  hold  it,  brush  the  inside  over  with 
clarified  butter,  lay  skin  side  down,  and  put  into  a  hot  oven 
on  the  grate.  It  should  be  nicely  browned  in  twenty-five 
minutes.  To  ascertain  whether  it  is  done  through,  pierce 
with  a  toothpick ;  if  the  juice  is  red,  cook  longer  in  a  cooler 
part  of  the  oven.  When  done,  put  on  the  platter,  dot  with 
bits  of  butter  ,and  jab  with  a  knife,  that  the  melting  butter 
may  season  the  chicken. 

To  Broil  Squabs. 

Prepare  and  broil  squabs  same  as  young  chicken. 

To  Broil  Woodcocks. 

These  birds  usually  have  the  long  bill  run  through  the 
thigh  joints,  the  head  being  always  left  on.  Broil  in  wire 
broiler  over  the  coals,  or  in  the  oven,  as  a  chicken. 


Fish  and  Boning  Knife. 

To  Oven  Broil  a  Fish. 

Remove  the  scales,  if  any,  also  the  head  and  fins.  Wash 
the  fish,  and  wipe  the  water  from  it.  Begin  at  the  head 
end,  and  with  a  dull  knife  scrape  the  meat  back  from  the 
ends  of  the  bones  and  follow  them  to  the  back 'bone  on 
one  side,  clear  to  the  tail.  Then  treat  the  other  side  in 
the  same  way,  and  take  backbone  and  ribs  out  together. 
Where  there  are  many  small  bones,  do  not  try  to  get 
them  all  out,  but  only  the  main  ones. 

7 


194  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Lay  the  fish  flat  on  a  pan  just  large  enough  to  hold  it, 
brush  the  flesh  side  with  clarified  butter,  and  cook  in  a 
very  hot  oven  until  it  flakes,  or  lay  slices  of  bacon  over 
the  surface  before  putting  the  fish  into  the  oven.  When 
done,  spread  with  parsley  butter,  and  serve.  Or  serve 
with  tartare  sauce,  or  serve  plain  with  lemon  points.  Serve 
cold  slaw  or  sliced  cucumbers  with  broiled  fish.  Potato 
balls  in  cream  are  always  a  pleasant  accompaniment. 

Parsley  Butter. 

Three  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
chopped  parsley,  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice,  salt  and 
pepper  to  taste.  Stir  all  well  together,  and  serve  on  the 
hot  food. 

To  Broil  Oysters. 

Select  the  largest  oysters,  see  that  they  are  free  from 
shells,  and  dry  on  a  towel.  Season  each  oyster,  brush  over 
with  butter,  and  broil  in  a  close-wired  broiler  over  a  hot 
fire. 

Broiled  Mackerel. 

If  the  mackerel  be  fresh  see  that  it  is  perfectly  cleaned, 
wash  and  wipe  dry.  Split  open  on  the  under  side, 
sprinkle  lightly  with  salt  and  lay  on  a  buttered  gridiron 
over  a  clear  bed  of  coals  with  the  inside  next  the  fire. 
When  brown  turn  it  over  and  brown  on  the  other  side. 
When  done  place  on  a  warm  platter  and  put  bits  of  butter 
over  it.  Cover  closely  for  a  short  time  and  serve. 

If  the  mackerel  is  salt,  freshen  it  in  water  over  night, 
in  the  morning  turn  the  water  off  and  wash  in  clean,  cold 
water,  then  proceed  as  with  the  fresh  fish. 

To  Broil  Bacon. 

Cut  the  bacon  very  thin,  put  into  a  very  hot  spider  and 
brown,  then  turn  and  brown  on  the  other  side,  take  from 
spider  and  place  on  a  cloth  or  brown  paper,  and  set  in  the 
oven  a  few  minutes. 


MEATS.  195 

ROASTING. 

The  principles  underlying  broiling  and  roasting  are  the 
same.  In  each  case  a  piece  of  tender  meat  is  used,  a  great 
heat  is  brought  to  bear,  so  that  the  outer  surface  may  be 
kept  intact,  and  the  result  is  a  piece  of  meat  with  a  flavor 
that  can  be  gotten  in  no  other  way.  The  meat  should  be 
seasoned  when  it  is  carved.  When  the  meat  is  basted  and 
the  seasoning  cooked  through  it,  there  is  little  difference 
in  the  flavor  of  an  expensive  and  a  cheap  piece  of  meat. 

Beef,  mutton  and  venison  are  all  roasted  in  the  same 
way :  Remove  the  outer  skin  in  order  to  rid  the  meat  of 


Ribs  and  Short  Loin. 

dirt  and  unpleasant  flavor.  This  is  especially  necessary  in 
mutton,  as  much  of  the  unpleasant  taste  lies  in  this  outer 
skin.  Do  not  allow  the  butcher  to  remove  the  bones,  as 
this  gives  more  cut  surfaces  from  which  the  juices  may 
exude,  and  there  will  necessarily  be  some  meat  cut  away 
with  the  bones,  and  the  bone  itself  adds  flavor  to  the  roast. 
A  writer  who  has  given  the  matter  of  household  waste 
some  study  says  that  the  waste  begins  in  the  meat  shop. 
He  states  that  he  has  seen  four  and  one-half  pounds  of 
trimmings  taken  from  a  sixteen-pound  roast.  These  trim- 
mings, which  consisted  approximately  of  two  and  one- 
fourth  pounds  of  bone  and  one-half  pound  of  tendon  and 


196  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

gristle,  which  would  add  flavor  and  nutrition  to  a  roast, 
and  one-and  three-fourths  pounds  of  meat,  of  which  one 
pound  is  lean,  and  the  other  three-fourths  fat,  were  left  for 
the  butcher  to  sell  to  the  soap  man,  or  get  rid  of  as  best  he 
could.  He  assumes  the  nutritive  value  of  the  ingredients 
to  amount  to  twelve,  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  whole, 
hence  twenty-eight  cents  worth  of  nutritious  material,  be- 
sides bone  and  tendon,  were  left  for  garbage. 


Prime  Eibs  and  Short  Loin  of  Beef. 

Before  putting  the  meat  into  the  oven,  the  cut  surfaces 
should  be  seared,  in  order  to  shut  in  the  juices.  Oven  for 
roasting  same  as  for  bread.  Braise  the  end  pieces,  which 
contain  the  bones  and  are  not  juicy.  Braising  can  be 
successfully  done  in  the  oven,  and  a  covered  pan  is  good 
for  this,  purpose.  Do  not  baste  the  meat  while  cooking. 
Fear  is  at  the  bottom  of  much  trouble,  and  the  cause  of 
unnecessary  labor,  and  many  baste  the  meat  for  fear  it 
will  burn. 

To  Roast  a  Piece  of  Beef. 

Wash  the  outside  or  skinny  part  of  the  meat  with  a 
white  cloth,  but  do  not  put  the  cut  surfaces  into  the  pan 


MEATS. 


197 


of  water,  as  this  will  prevent  their  browning  nicely  when 
seared,  and  there  has  been  nothing  to  soil  them.  Meas- 
ure the  meat  before  cooking  and  for  every  inch  in  thick- 
ness, allow  fifteen  minutes  in  the  oven  after  it  begins 
to  cook,  if  wanted  rare.  If  it  is  desired  better  done,  give 
it  twenty  minutes  to  the  inch.  Have  the  oven  hot  enough 
so  that  you  can  hear  the  meat  sizzling  as  you  listen  outside 


Small  End  Rib  Cut  of  Beef. 

the  oven  door,  but  not  hot  enough  to  burn.  Sufficient  heat 
can  be  used  without  discoloring  the  fat,  and  if  the  meat  is 
well  seared,  very  little  juice  will  escape  into  the  pan: 

Yorkshire  Pudding. 

Beat  three  eggs  until  very  light,  put  in  a  scant  teaspoon- 
ful  of  salt  and  one  pint  of  milk,  pottr  one-half  cup  of  the 
mixture  over  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  flour,  and  stir  to  a 


198  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

smooth  paste,  then  pour  the  rest  in,  and  beat  well.  Bake 
in  a  hot  gem  pan  forty-five  minutes,  or  pour  into  the  roast- 
ing pan  under  the  meat,  which  rests  on  a  rack,  and  bake. 

Braised  Beef, 

Choose  a  cut  of  beef  which  is  too  tough  for  oven  roast- 
ing. The  lower  part  of  the  round  is  good  for  this  pur- 
pose. Put  it  into  a  covered  roasting  pan,  and  when  well 
browned  put  in  a  little  water,  and  keep  covered  until  done. 
Season  when  about  half  done. 

Tomato  Sauce. 

Brown  together  in  a  saucepan  one  and  one-half  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter  and  two  of  flour.  Add  one  cup  of 


Beef  Shoulder  Cut. 

liquid  from  the  roasting  pan,  and  one-half  a  cup  of 
strained  tomato,  and  let  boil  up  together.  Thicken  with 
one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  mixed  with  a  lit- 
tle water,  and  stir  .until  smooth  and  cooked. 

To  Roast  Spare  Ribs  of  Pork. 

See  that  they  are  clean,  then  break  the  bones  in  the  cen- 
ter of  their  length,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  bake 
in  a  hot  oven  until  done. 

To  Roast  Pork. 

Put  into  the  oven  in  a  dry  pan,  same  as  beef,  and  when 
brown,  baste  same  as  chicken,  except  that,  in  making  bast- 


MEATS.  199 

ing  for  pork,  leave  out  the  butter.  An  easy  way  to  baste 
veal  or  pork  is  to  turn  it  over  in  the  pan  containing  the 
basting.  Pork  or  veal  is  seasoned  before  putting  into  the 
oven,  because  it  is  necessarily  cooked  a  long  time,  and  can- 
not be  served  juicy. 

To  Roast  Veal. 

Proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  for  pork,  except  use  half 
as  much  sugar  as  salt  in  seasoning  the  meat.  It  is  well 
to  use  a  dressing  with  veal,  and  make  same  as  chicken 
dressing.  It  is  better  never  to  reheat  a  roast  of  juicy 
meat,  as  mutton,  lamb  or  beef.  Better  use  cold  or  cook  a 
small  roast. 

To  Roast  a  Leg  of  Lamb  or  Mutton. 

Scrape  the  flesh  back  from  the  small  bone  at  the  shank 
end,  and  remove  at  the  joint,  if  this  has  not  already  been 
done.  Remove  the  thin  outer  skin  without  cutting  into 
the  flesh.  See  that  the  joint  is  clean  and  dry,  sear  the  cut 
surfaces  by  pressing  for  a  few  minutes  on  a  smoking  hot 
spider,  put  into  the  oven,  and  keep  hot  enough  to  smoke 
a  little  and  sizzle,  but  do  not  let  burn.  It  should  cook 
without  basting,  and  will,  if  not  too  hot.  The  basting 
draws  the  juices  out  of  the  meat,  and  leaves  it  dry.  Serve 
roast  lamb  with  mint  sauce,  currant  jelly,  grape  jelly,  or 
barberry  jelly.  A  leg  of  lamb  usually  requires  about  one 
and  one-fourth  hours,  but  if  wanted  well  done,  give  fifteen 
minutes  longer.  Serve  the  meat  hot,  and  let  the  guests 
season  for  themselves,  then  the  juice  will  not  remain  in 
the  platter.  A  leg  of  mutton  will  need  to  cook  about  fif- 
teen minutes  longer  than  a  leg  of  lamb. 

Serve  with  mutton  some  acid  jelly.  The  vegetables 
which  may  be  served  with  it  are  many,  as  browned  sweet 
potatoes,  hubbard  squash,  green  peas,  sliced  tomatoes,  etc. 
Stewed  peaches,  browned  apples,  or  apple  sauce  may  be 
used  instead  of  jelly,  if  desired. 


200  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Mint  Sauce  for  Roast  Lamb. 

One  heaping  tablespoonful  of  finely-chopped  mint,  one 
cup  of  vinegar  (scant).  Season  to  taste  with  salt  and 
pepper,  put  mint  and  vinegar  together,  heat  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  serve. 

To  Bake  a  Fish  (with  Dressing). 

Bone,  or  leave  the  bones  in.  It  is  easier  carved  with 
the  bones  out.  See  that  the  fish  is  clean  and  dry.  Make 
a  dressing  by  using  bread  crumbs,  and  seasoning  them 
with  salt  and  pepper  to  taste,  and  to  each  cup  of  crumbs 
use  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  each  of  grated  lemon  peel 
and  nutmeg.  Season  them  a  little  more  highly  with  salt 
and  pepper  than  you  want  them  when  done,  as  the  fish 
will  take  up  some.  Season  the  fish  also,  moisten  the 
crumbs  with  melted  butter  until  they  taste  well,  but  do  not 
overdo.  Fill  the  fish  comfortably  full,  sew  up,  and  lay 
pieces  of  breakfast  bacon  or  salt  pork  over  the  top  of  the 
fish  as  it  lays  on  the  side  in  the  baking  pan,  or,  better,  on 
the  fish  sheet,  put  slices  of  meat  under  the  fish  also.  Bake 
in  a  very  hot  oven.  It  should  cook  in  about  thirty-five 
minutes,  if  a  medium-sized  fish. 

Drawn  Butter  Sauce, 

One  cup  of  hot  water  or  broth,  one  tablespoonful  of 
flour,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one-half  teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  one-half  saltspoonful  of  pepper.  If  the  broth 
is  already  partially  seasoned,  add  these  to  taste.  Put  to- 
gether as  White  Sauce  No.  I.  Serve  with  baked  or  boiled 
fish. 

Fish  Turbot. 

One  pint  of  whole  milk,  three  level  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one  teaspoonful 
of  salt,  a  little  pepper,  one  egg  white,  one-quarter  tea- 
spoonful  of  parsley,  one  and  one-half  pounds  of  any 
white  fish, — halibut  preferred.  Rub  salt  on  the  fish,  and 
steam  until  thoroughly  done.  Take  out  bones,  remove  the 
skin,  and  shred  fish  very  fine.  Heat  the  flour  and  butter 


MEATS.  201 

in  a  saucepan  (do  not  let  it  brown),  pour  in  the  milk,  and 
cook  until  it  thickens  and  does  not  taste  of  raw  flour. 
Cover  and  set  away  to  cool  (after  seasoning).  When 
cool,  fold  in  the  egg  white,  which  has  been  beaten  stiff. 
In  a  buttered  baking  dish  put  a  layer  of  the  shredded  fish, 
cover  with  the  white  sauce,  and  continue  in  this  way  until 
all  the  fish  and  sauce  are  in.  Cover  the  top  with  buttered 
crumbs,  put  in  the  oven,  and  bake  fifteen  or  twenty  min- 
utes, when  it  should  be  a  nice  brown. 


Fowl  in  Baking  Dish. 

To  Prepare  and  Roast  a  Chicken  or  Turkey. 

Cut  the  skin  at  the  back  of  the  neck  to  remove  the  crop. 
After  cutting  around  the  vent,  remove  the  entrails  by  mak- 
ing a  cut  under  one  of  the  second  joints, — the  one  most 
convenient  for  you.  Wash  well  inside  and  out  with  cold 
water,  and  wipe  dry  with  a  clean,  white  cloth. 

Make  a  dressing  of  bread  crumbs,  seasoning  with  salt 
and  pepper,  and  moistening  with  melted  butter.  Do  not 
use  enough  butter  to  make  the  crumbs  adhere.  Do  not 
put  in  water  and  do  not  pack  the  crumbs  in  the  chicken, 
but  leave  a  little  room  for  the  dressing  to  swell.  Season 
highly,  as  some  seasoning  will  be  taken  up  by  the  chicken. 
After  filling,  lap  the  skin  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  and 
bring  over  the  end  of  the  neck  bone,  and  pin  with  a 
skewer,  or  tie.  This  closes  the  opening  made  in  removing 
the  crop.  Tie  the  drum  sticks  together,  and  put  in  a 


202  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

skewer,  or  tie  down  without  a  skewer,  thus  closing  the 
opening  under  the  second  joint.  Brown  the  chicken 
nicely,  then  begin  basting.  Make  basting  by  stirring  to- 
gether one  tablespoonful  of  butter  and  one  and  one-half 
of  flour,  pour  on  one  pint  of  boiling  water,  and  stir.  Sea- 
son well  with  salt  and  pepper.  The  length  of  time  neces- 
sary for  cooking  depends  on  the  age,  as  well  as  size.  A 
young  chicken,  weighing  two  and  a  half  pounds,  dressed, 
requires  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  Choose  <only 
those  chickens  for  roasting  which  are  young  enough  for 
the  tip  of  the  breast  bone  to  bend  readily.  For  older 
ones  than  this,  use  a  covered  pan  or  kettle  and  braise 
rather  than  roast. 
Basting  for  Fowls — Class  Rule. 

To  make  basting  gravy,  take  one  teaspoonful  of  flour, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  butter,  and  rub  together.  To  this 
add  one-half  cup  of  liquid,  and  season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per, and  let  boil  until  smooth. 

A  very  thin  gravy  makes  a  good  basting  material.  A 
big  turkey  would  require  a  quart  of  basting  gravy. 

A  turkey  weighing  eight  pounds  will  usually  require 
about  three  hours  to  cook.  Serve  with  cranberry  sauce 
or  currant  jelly. 

With  roast  chicken  or  turkey  serve  scalloped  oysters. 
Oysters  in  dressing  are  apt  to  be  too  much  cooked.  Vege- 
tables which  are  nice  with  chicken  and  turkey  are  white 
potatoes,  tomatoes,  sweet  corn,  sweet  potatoes,  and  slaw. 

A  covered  pan  is  never  necessary,  but  after  the  edible  is 
brown,  it  may  be  used,  especially  for  poultry,  veal  and  pork, 
because  the  poultry  is  protected  by  the  skin,  and  the  others 
must  be  cooked  slowly  and  a  long  time.  In  juicy  meats, 
the  steam  softens  the  surface,  and  allows  the  juice  to  run 
out. 

Seasonings  for  Meat  Dressings. 

Thyme  is  used  mainly  in  broths  and  soups,  but  it  may  be 
used  in  meat  dressings  also.  Lemon  thyme  is  less  pun- 


FRYING. 


203 


gent  than  the  common  thyme,  and  is  especially  nice  in  veal 
dressings,  if  one  wishes  thyme  at  all.  Sweet  marjoram 
or  knotted  marjoram  is  less  delicate  than  lemon  thyme, 
but  is  the  best  of  marjorams  for  this  purpose.  When 
sage  is  used,  the  common  green  is  best.  Sage  is  good 
with  pork,  as  it  improves  the  flavor  of  the  meat.  With 
chicken  and  turkey,  celery  is  a  more  harmonious  flavor 
than  sage. 


Frying  Kettle  and  Basket. 

PRYING. 

By  frying  we  mean  cooking  in  deep  fat.  Any.  pure, 
clear  fat  that  is  free  from  strong  odor  will  answer  the 
purpose.  In  order  that  the  frying  be  properly  done,  ( i ) 
the  fat  used  for  frying  must  be  clarified  unless  already 
clear.  To  clarify  fat,  put  where  it  will  melt,  and  slice 
into  it  one  small  raw  potato.  Cook  until  it  ceases  to  bub- 
ble, but  do  not  make  it  hot  enough  to  burn  the  potato. 
Strain  through  a  fine  sieve,  pouring  it  carefully  from  the 
sediment.  (2)  The  temperature  of  the  fat  must  be  high 


204  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

enough  to  sear  the  surface  of  the  article  cooked  as  nearly 
instantaneously  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  juices  be  pre- 
served inside  the  food,  and  consequently  the  flavor  be  un- 
impaired. The  quick  cooking  prevents  all  the  absorption 
of  fat,  which  is  a  very  important  matter  in  fried  food. 

Before  there  is  any  danger  of  the  fat  burning,  a  slice 
of  raw  potato  should  be  dropped  into  it.  As  soon  as  the 
potato  becomes  brown,  the  grease  is  hot  enough  for  frying 
most  things.  Keep  a  piece  of  potato  in  the  fat  when 
nothing  is  cooking,  to  prevent  the  fat  burning. 

The  thing  of  importance  is  that  the  fat  be  sufficiently 
deep  to  immerse  the  article  fried,  as  it  will  then  cook  at 
once  on  all  sides.  For  perfect  frying,  articles  should  be 
round  or  spherical,  as  articles  of  this  shape  will  fry  more 
perfectly  because  the  sides  touch  less,  and  all  parts  are 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  heat.  Only  a  few  articles  of 
food  should  be  put  in  at  one  time,  lest  the  heat  of  the 
grease  be  reduced  below  the  frying  temperature. 

The  frying  basket  should  be  dipped  into  the  fat  before 
the  food  is  put  into  it.  If  the  articles  to  be  fried  are  of  a. 
delicate  nature,  as  oysters  or  croquettes,  they  should  be 
put  into  the  basket,  the  basket  should  then  be  lowered 
slowly  into  the  hot  fat,  but  in  general  the  basket  should 
be  lowered  empty,  and  the  articles  to  be  fried  put  into  it 
one  by  one. 

FRIED  FOOD  MAY  BE  DIVIDED  INTO  THREE  CLASSES, — 
First,  that  class  of  food  which  requires  no  protection  to 
prevent  the  absorption  of  grease,  as  potatoes  and  rice. 
Second,  those  foods  which  need  protection,  as  chicken, 
fish,  etc.  Third,  that  class  which  is  perfectly  soft  and 
moist,  or  of  perfectly  smooth  surface,  and  which,  on  ac- 
count of  one  or  more  of  these  conditions,  must  be  given 
all  the  protection  possible.  Articles  of  this  class  of  foods 
should  be  rolled  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  wheat  flour 


FRYING.  2 

and  cornmeal,  in  order  that  the  surface  be  rendered  dry 
and  rough  before  applying  the  coating  of  egg.  To  this 
class  belong  oysters  and  croquettes. 

Fried  Potatoes. 

Pare  the  potatoes,  cut  into  the  desired  shape  and  soak 
in  ice  water  until  wanted  for  frying.  Heat  the  grease  in 
the  frying  kettle,  and  test  its  temperature  with  a  slice  of 
potato.  In  the  meantime  drain  the  potatoes  in  a  colander, 
and  shake  in  a  towel  to  remove  the  moisture.  Lower  the 
basket  into  the  grease,  and  add  a  few  slices  of  potato  at  a 
time,  until  the  bottom  is  covered.  The  rapidity  with  which 
the  potatoes  may  be  put  in  must  be  determined  by  the 
appearance  of  the  fat.  If  the  surface  of  the  liquid  be- 
comes covered  with  bubbles,  let  it  become  hotter  before 
adding  more  food,  as  the  bubbles  indicate  that  the  grease 
is  not  hot  enough.  When  the  potatoes  are  done,  lift  the 
basket,  shake  the  grease  off,  and  turn  the  articles  into  a 
dish  lined  with  several  folds  of  cheesecloth.  Serve  on  a 
napkin  on  a  platter. 

Potato  Straws. 

Potato  straws  must  be  well  cooked  to  render  them  crisp. 
Use  long  potatoes  and  cut  into  slender,  matchlike  strips. 
Soak  them  in  ice  water  for  half  an  hour  after  cutting 
before  frying.  Such  treatment  removes  much  of  the  food 
value,  but  the  straws  look  better. 

To  Fry  Fish. 

Cut  into  pieces  of  a  suitable  size  for  serving,  and  coat 
with  a  grease-proof  coating  made  by  beating  two  eggs 
with  four  tablespoonfuls  of  water  until  well  mixed,  but 
not  light.  Season  each  piece  of  fish,  dip  in  the  egg,  coat 
with  bread  crumbs  and  fry. 

Small  fish  are  fried  without  cutting.  Young  chicken, 
and  tender  veal  may  be  cooked  in  the  same  way.  Fish 
for  frying  must  be  dried  thoroughly,  and  dredged  thickly 
with  flour  before  being  brushed  over  with  egg  and  bread 
crumbs. 


206  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  Fry  Oysters. 

Choose  oysters  of  the  largest  size,  and  dry  on  a  white 
cloth.  See  that  they  are  free  from  shells.  Season  the 
oysters  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  roll  in  cornmeal.  Then 
dip  in  the  egg  coating,  as  for  fish,  and  cover  with  very  fine, 
light  bread  crumbs.  Coarser  crumbs  cannot  be  used  for 
this.  They  must  be  very  fine,  and  from  the  inner  part  of 
the  loaf.  Lay  the  coated  oysters  carefully  on  the  bottom 
of  the  frying  basket,  lower  into  the  hot  grease.  The  coat- 
ing should  brown  in  a  very  short  time,  when  the  oysters 
will  be  done.  Oysters  and  croquettes  should  have  the  fat 
very  hot,  because  they  are  so  easily  cooked. 

Larding,  Meats,  etc. 

Lean  meats  which  are  inclined  to  be  rather  dry  are  the 
ones  usually  larded,  as  fillet  of  beef  (the  tenderloin),  fillet 
of  veal  (that  cut  from  the  thick  portion  of  the  leg),  roast 
chicken,  turkey,  grouse,  etc.  The  object  of  larding  is  to 
give  the  flavor  of  fat  pork  in  a  small  degree  to  the  ar- 
ticle cooked,  and  also  to  keep  the  surface  oiled,  that  it 
may  not  become  so  hard.  Strips  of  salt  pork  are  some- 
times simply  laid  on  the  roast  while  it  cooks.  Sometimes 
gashes  are  cut,  and  strips  of  salt  pork  laid  in  them  so  that 
the  fat  may  penetrate  and  flavor  the  interior  of  the  meat 
somewhat. 

Use  firm  salt  pork,  and  remove  the  rind.  Then  cut 
parallel  with  the  rind,  strips  of  fat,  free  from  lean,  and 
throw  into  a  basin  of  ice  water.  Make  these  strips  about 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  two  inches  long.  Procure  a  larding  needle  of  proper 
size,  insert  the  lardoon,  and  push  well  up  into  the  needle. 
Insert  an  iron  skewer  into  the  flesh  at  the  tip  of  the 
breast,  making  it  about  half  an  inch  below  the  surface, 
and  take  a  stitch  an  inch  long,  and  draw  lardoon  into 
place.  In  larding  a  fowl,  begin  at  the  tip  of  the  breast 
and  make  two  rows  up  the  breast  to  the  wings  on  each 
side  of  the  breast  bone.  Put  one  or  two  rows  on  the 


FRYING.  207 

legs,  beginning  with  the  drum  stick,  and  running  up  the 
second  joint  to  the  body.  In  larding  a  fillet,  put  the  rows 
of  lardoons  about  an  inch  apart.  For  larding  birds,  use 
a  smaller  needle,  and  proportionately  smaller  lardoons. 

To  Fillet  a  Fowl. 

After  the  fowl  is  dressed,  place  it  with  the  head  to- 
ward you,  and  remove  skin  from  the  breast.  Then  cut 
straight  in  a  line  from  the  middle  of  neck  to  the  point 
of  the  wishbone.  Follow  the  wishbone  down  and  sepa- 
rate the  meat  from  the  wing  bone,  and  loosen  from  the 
side,  thus  removing  one-half  the  meat  on  the  breastbone. 
This  can  be  separated  into  two  fillets,  one  smaller  than  the 
other. 

To  Fillet  a  Fish. 

Remove  skin  and  bones,  and  if  the  fish  is  large,  cut  each 
half  into  two  parts  lengthwise.  If  the  fish  is  small,  leave 
each  side  whole.  In  any  case,  roll  up,  bread  and  fry. 

References — U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  34, 
pages  19  and  20;  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, Bulletin  No.  21,  pages  13,  72,  14,  81  and  82;  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Bulletin  102, 
pages  63  and  64. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
SAUTEING. 

Sauteing  is  a  term  used  to  describe  the  manner  of  cook- 
ing food  in  a  small  quantity  of  fat.  For  sauteing,  one 
needs  a  fat  which  will  bear  a  high  temperature  without 
burning.  Butter  or  drippings,  when  used  for  cooking 
food,  should  always  be  clarified. 

To  Clarify  Butter. 

Put  in  the  saucepan  over  the  fire,  and  let  cook  until  the 
scum  can  be  removed,  then  pour  off  the  liquid  carefully 
from  the  sediment  which  settles  in  the  bottom.  To  clar- 
ify drippings,  put  in  a  kettle  over  the  fire,  and  cook  until 
the  water  is  out,  then  pour  into  a  vessel  of  clear  water,  let 
cool,  take  out  the  cake  of  fat,  scrape  the  bottom,  and  with 
a  clean  cloth  wipe  off  all  water,  and  repeat  the  process  if 
necessary. 

To  Saute  Salsify. 

Cook  the  salsify  in  salted  boiling  water,  drain,  dry,  sea- 
son, and  mash.  When  cooled  a  little,  mix  with  each  pint 
of  salsify  one  egg  well  beaten  and  seasoned.  Form  the 
mixture  into  cakes,  coat  with  egg  and  crumbs,  and  put  into  a 
spider  well  greased  with  fat  (clarified  butter,  drippings, 
ham,  or  bacon  fat),  brown  on  both  sides,  and  serve  hot. 

To  Saute  Cabbage. 

Chop  cabbage  moderately  fine,  put  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  butter  in  the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  put  in  three  pints  of 
shredded  cabbage,  and  just  enough  water  to  keep  from 
burning.  Cook  closely  covered  until  tender,  season  with 
salt  and  pepper,  and  serve. 


SAUTEING.  209 

To  Saute  Parsnips. 

Cut  into  slices  about  one-half  inch  thick,  steam  until 
tender,  and  add  one  teaspoonful  of  sugar  to  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  fat,  and  brown  the  parsnips  in  this  on  a 
spider.  Or  treat  cold  mashed  parsnips  same  as  oyster 
plant.  Use  butter  and  drippings  mixed  in  sauteing  pars- 
nips, because  they  will  have  a  better  flavor. 

To  Saute  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Remove  the  skin  from  cold  sweet  potatoes,  sprinkle 
over  them  a  little  salt  and  a  little  sugar  and  fry  in  but- 
ter. Be  careful  not  to  let  them  burn.  Use  clarified  but- 
ter. 

To  Saute  Potatoes. 

Slice  cold  boiled  potatoes  lengthwise  in  one-fourth  inch 
slices,  season,  and  brown  on  both  sides. 

Sauted  Potato  Balls. 

Put  one  pint  of  cold  mashed  potatoes  in  a  little  milk  or 
cream  in  a  saucepan,  and  mix  and  stir  potatoes  until  they 
are  free  from  lumps,  but  not  actually  hot.  Beat  one  egg 
light,  and  add  enough  of  it  to  the  potatoes  to  make  them 
adhere.  Form  into  cakes,  and  brown  on  both  sides. 

Hashed  Brown  Potatoes. 

Chop  cold  boiled  potatoes  as  for  hash,  and  season  well. 
Use  white  sauce  to  moisten  so  that  they  will  stick  to- 
gether, but  be  careful  not  to  make  too  moist.  May  hash 
dried  bread,  and  use  with  them  in  any  proportion  liked. 
These  potatoes  may  be  varied  also  by  leaving  out  the 
bread,  and  seasoning  the  hashed  potatoes  with  onion  and 
parsley  before  sauteing  them.  Cook  until  brown  on  bot- 
tom in  a  spider  coated  with  crumbs,  and  turn  out  like  an 
omelet. 

To  Saute  Summer  Squash. 

Summer  squash,  when  young,  may  be  sauted.  Wash 
and  wipe,  then  cut  in  slices  half  an  inch  thick,  season  each 


210  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

with  salt  arid  pepper,  brown  in  plenty  of  clarified  butter, 
and  cover  to  steam,  if  not  tender  when  brown. 

To  Saute  Onions. 

Peel  the  onions,  slice  crosswise,  have  the  fat  hot  in  the 
spider,  put  the  onions  into  it,  season,  and  cook  covered  un- 
til tender,  stirring  as  needed. 

Scotch  Haggis, 

One-half  cup  of  ground  liver,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
picked-up  suet,  three-fourths  cup  of  water,  one-eighth 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-half  cup  (generous)  of  rolled 
oats.  Boil  the  liver  in  a  lump  in  salted  water,  and  grate 
when  cold.  Pick  the  suet  up  fine,  and  add  the  liver 
to  the  rolled  oats.  Have  the  water  boiling  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  double  boiler,  stir  the  cereal,  liver,  and  suet  in, 
and  when  it  ceases  to  settle,  put  into  the  hot  water  in 
the  lower  part  of  boiler,  and  cook  one  hour.  When  cold, 
saute  like  mush. 

Scrapple. 

One  large  hog's  head, — one  from  a  hog  weighing  about 
two  hundred  pounds, — cut  just  behind  the  ears.  Remove 
all  undesirable  parts.  Soak  several  hours  in  slightly 
salted  water,  and  boil  until  the  meat  falls  from  the  bones. 
Remove  the  meat  from  the  liquor  and  let  cool.  Strain 
the  liquor,  and  when  cold,  skim  off  the  grease.  Heat  the 
liquor,  season  it,  and  pour  in  hot  water  until  the  quan- 
tity of  liquor  equals  two  gallons  (generous).  Into  this 
put  the  hashed  meat,  and  season.  Heat  to  boiling,  and  stir 
into  it  cornmeal  until  it  is  stiff.  Two  cups  of  flour  should 
be  mixed  with  the  cornmeal.  Cook  until  the  fat  can 
again  be  seen  rising  to  the  top,  then  pour  into  pans  lined 
with  white  cloth  and  let  cool.  Saute  same  as  mush,  or  put 
the  scrappel  cut  in  slices  into  a  hot  spider,  and  brown  in 
its  own  fat. 


SAUTEING.  211 

To  Saute  Cold  Mush. 

Cut  mush  of  any  kind  into  slices,  roll  in  egg  and 
crumbs,  and  brown  on  both  sides  in  a  hot  spider  con- 
taining a  little  fat.  Bacon  or  ham  fat  is  best. 

To  Saute  Bread. 

Break  an  egg  into  a  bowl,  and  beat  until  well  broken. 
Add  to  it  one  cup  of  sweet  milk,  and  mix  the  two.  Sea- 
son the  liquid  to  taste.  Dip  slices  of  stale  bread  in  this, 
and  saute  in  hot  fat  in  a  spider  until  well  browned  on 
both  sides. 

To  Saute  Chicken. 

Cut  the  chicken  into  pieces  of  the  proper  size  for  serv- 
ing, season  each  piece  with  salt  and  pepper,  roll  in  flour, 
and  place  in  the  hot  fat  until  the  bottom  of  the  spider 
is  covered.  Brown  on  both  sides,  then  put  in  a  little 
hot  water,  cover  closely,  and  draw  to  the  back  of  the 
range  and  let  cook  through.  When  done,  remove  the 
chicken  to  a  warm  platter.  Put  into  the  fat  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  and  stir  until  mixed,  then  put  in  one 
cup  of  milk  or  chicken  broth,  stir  well,  and  when  it  is 
thick,  and  the  flour  is  cooked,  season  and  serve.  Saute 
prairie  chickens  same  as  chicken. 

To  Saute  Rabbit. 

Proceed  in  the  same  way  as  for  chicken. 

To  Prepare  and  Saute  Sweetbreads. 

Remove  the  inedible  parts.  If  the  sweetbreads  are 
bloody,  soak  in  cold  water  a  few  hours.  When  ready,  put 
to  cook  in  boiling  salted  water  and  cook  until  they  can  be 
easily  pierced  with  a  toothpick.  If  you  wish  them  white 
as  possible,  put  into  cold  water  and  let  stand  a  little. 
When  cold,  cut  into  half-inch  thick  slices,"  cover  with  egg 
and  crumbs,  and  saute  in  hot  bacon  fat.  May  serve  bacon 
with  the  sweetbreads. 


212  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Sauted  Hash  Balls. 

One  cup  of  hashed  meat,  one  cup  of  mashed  potato, 
one  egg,  whipped.  Season  to  taste.  Form  into  balls,  and 
saute  in  a  little  fat. 

To  Saute  Ham. 

Cut  the  slices  very  thin,  trim  off  the  rind,  and  a  small 
shaving,  all  around  the  slices.  Lay  the  pieces  on  a  dry 
but  smoking-hot  spider,  and  brown  on  each  side,  then  put 
in  a  very  little  water,  cover  closely,  and  let  simmer  a  few 
minutes  to  cook  through.  Drain  off  the  fat  before  serv- 
ing. 

To  Saute  Fish. 

Prepare  the  fish  for  cooking,  cut  into  pieces  suitable  for 
serving,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  roll  in  flour  and 
cornmeal,  •  equal  parts,  put  into  the  hot  fat,  and  brown 
quickly  on  both  sides,  then  draw  to  a  cooler  part  of  range 
and  let  cook  through. 

To  Saute  Fish  Cakes. 

After  the  codfish  has  been  soaked,  shredded,  freed 
from  skin  and  bones,  and  cooked,  if  necessary,  mix  with 
an  equal  amount  of  potato,  either  mashed  or  hashed 
fine,  and  to  a  pint  of  the  mixture  add  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  sweet  cream  or  milk,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter. Form  into  cakes,  put  into  a  spider  with  a  little  hot 
fat,  and  brown  on  both  sides.  Use  any  good-flavored 
drippings  for  the  frying  fat  for  these. 

To  Saute  Liver. 

Calf's  liver  is  the  best.  Remove  the  inedible  parts  and 
cut  the  liver  into  slices  half  an  inch  thick,  put  into  a  pan, 
pour  boiling  water  over  them,  drain,  season  each  slice, 
cover  with  flour,  and  saute  in  bacon  fat  until  done 
through.  Bacon  and  liver  are  appropriately  cooked  and 
served  together. 


SAUTEING.  213 

To  Saute  Liver  Balls- 

One  cup  of  cold  liver,  minced  fine ;  one  tablespoonful  of 
cold  bacon,  chopped;  one  teaspoonful  of  finely-minced 
parsley,  one  teaspoonful  of  finely-minced  capers,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  finely-minced  pickles,  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
finely-minced  onion,  salt  and  pepper  to  taste.  Saute  in 
bacon  fat. 

Cold  Meat  Scrapple. 

Make  a  cornmeal  mush  by  using  one  and  one-half 
cups  of  water,  one-fourth  cup  of  cornmeal  and  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Cook  the  mush  about  twenty  min- 
utes, then  stir  in  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  fine  hashed 
meat,  cook  teti  minutes,  turn  into  a  granite  pan.  When 
cold  and  firm,  cut  in  slices  and  saute  like  mush.  Serve 
while  hot. 

To  Saute  Eggs. 

Put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  ham  or  bacon  fat  in  the 
spider,  break  the  number  of  eggs  required,  and  slide 
from  the  plate  into  spider,  let  cook  a  few  minutes,  then 
put  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  cover  closely,  and  let 
cook  until  the  white  is  set. 

To  Saute  Veal  Chops. 

Trim  the  chops  so  that  they  will  lay  flat  on  the  spider, 
season  them  to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper,  sprinkle  over 
them  half  as  much  sugar  as  salt,  and  dredge  with  flour. 
Put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  and  two  of  beef  drip- 
pings into  the  spider,  and  when  smoking  hot  lay  the  chops 
in  and  brown  them  on  both  sides.  Then  add  one-fourth 
of  a  cup  of  water,  cover  closely,  and  let  cook  slowly  for 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  uncover,  let  the  water  evapor- 
ate, and  serve.  Pork  and  veal  are  considered  more 
wholesome  when  very  thoroughly  cooked. 

To  Cook  Pork  Chops. 

Have  the  chops  cut  one  inch  thick,  as  the  meat  will 
be  more  juicy  and  consequently  finer  flavored  when 


214  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cooked.  Lay  the  chops  on  a  plate  and  mix  in  a  cup  the 
amount  of  salt  and  pepper  which  you  intend  to  use  for 
seasoning,  and  with  these  mix  one-half  as  much  sugar  as 
salt.  Sprinkle  the  mixture  over  the  chops,  and  dredge 
with  flour.  If  fat,  place  on  a  smoking  hot  dry  spider,  sea- 
soned side  up.  When  brown  on  one  side  turn  and  brown 
on  the  other  side.  Drain  off  the  grease,  cover  the  spider 
closely,  and  draw  to  the  back  of  the  range;  put  in  a 
tablespoonful  of  water,  and  let  simmer  until  done  through. 
Lift  to  a  warm  platter,  put  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  milk 
or  cream,  stir  well,  pour  over  the  chops,  and  serve.  Hot 
apple  sauce  is  always  relished  with  fresh  pork. 

To  Cook  Mutton  Chops. 

Have  the  chops  cut  the  same  thickness  as  the  pork 
chops,  and  for  the  same  reason.  It  is  best,  in  preparing 
any  chop  or  steak  for  cooking  to  remove  the  outer  skin- 
like  tissue,  as  it  removes  any  dirt  which  may  adhere  to 
the  meat.  In  mutton  the  strong  flavor  is  largely  due  to 
the  outer  skin,  and  the  fat  lying  near  it.  When  ready, 
cook  in  the  same  way  as  pork  chops,  except  omit  the 
sugar.  Apples  baked  without  the  skins  are  much  relished 
with  mutton  or  lamb  chops. 

To  Cook  Frozen  Meats, 

Frozen  meats  should  be  thawed  before  cooking,  other- 
wise the  cold  interior  will  require  a  heat  so  long  continued 
as  to  overcook  the  outer  parts  of  the  cut.  It  is  usually 
best  to  place  the  meat  for  several  hours  at  a  temperature 
of  about  eighty  degrees,  protected  from  the  air,  that  it 
may  thaw  gradually ;  but  this  cannot  always  be  done.  To 
cook  a  frozen  steak  or  chop,  have  a  hot  spider  containing 
a  little  fat,  place  the  steak  in  this,  and  let  it  brown  on 
both  sides.  Then  pour  into  the  spider  a  few  tablespoon- 
fuls of  water,  cover  closely,  draw  to  a  cooler  part  of  the 
range,  and  allow  to  cook  thoroughly  by  means  of  the 
steam  produced.  When  almost  done,  sprinkle  salt  over 
the  surface  of  the  steak,  turn  the  meat,  and  lift  to  a  warm 


SAUTEING.  215 

platter,  pour  the  gravy  over  it,  and  put  a  few  spoonfuls  of 
cream  or  hot  water  in  the  spider,  stir,  and  pour  this  into 
the  platter.  A  frozen  roast,  if  carefully  prepared,  is 
usually  best  cooked  as  a  pot  roast,  or  roasted  in  a  covered 
pan  in  the  oven.  In  either  case,  put  a  little  water  in  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  let  it  be  boiling  on  the  range. 
Place  the  meat  in  the  water,  and  when  one  surface  has 
cooked  a  little,  turn  the  meat  and  cook  another  surface, 
until  all  cut  parts  are  seared.  This  will  help  to  shut  in 
the  juices  and  render  the  joint  more  moist.  It  is  best  to 
leave  the  meat  unsalted,  and  let  each  guest  salt  it  to  suit 
his  own  taste.  If  salt  is  used  while  the  meat  is  cooking, 
some  of  the  juices^ are  lost  on  account  of  it.  After  it  is 
seared,  put  on  the  close-fitting  cover,  whether  the  meat 
is  to  be  cooked  in  a  kettle  on  the  range  or  in  a  pan 
in  the  oven.  Cook  slowly  until  almost  done;  then  allow 
the  water  to  evaporate,  and  brown  each  surface  of  the 
meat  before  serving. 

Beef  Balls  with  Horseradish  Sauce. 

One  cup  of  cold  beef  chopped.  Moisten  with  a  very 
thick  brown  gravy,  enough  to  make  stick  together,  and 
season.  Shape  into  cakes  and  saute  in  hot  fat.  May  sea- 
son the  balls  like  croquettes,  if  desired.  Serve  with  horse- 
radish sauce. 

Sauteing  Fruits. 

Pare,  core,  and  slice  apples,  and  saute  same  as  onions. 
The  apples  may  be  sliced  without  paring,  if  desired. 

To  Saute  Bananas. 

Peel  and  cut  each  in  three  pieces  lengthwise,  dust  them 
with  sugar,  put  on  a  few  drops  of  lemon  juice,  put  into 
the  hot  butter,  and  brown  on  each  side.  Use  clarified 
butter. 


CHAPTER  XYII. 

CARVING. 

In  order  to  be  successful  in  any  undertaking,  and  es- 
pecially in  one  which  must  be  performed  in  the  pres- 
ence of  others,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  perfectly 
every  detail  of  the  work.  There  are  a  few  general  truths 
about  carving  which  must  be  learned,  but  no  person  be- 
comes an  expert  carver  except  by  serving  his  appren- 
ticeship well.  There  are  two  ways  of  obtaining  neces- 


Carving  Knife  and  Fork. 

sary  practice.  One  and  probably  the  only  way  open  to 
boys  is  to  obtain  the  privilege  of  carving  at  the  family 
table.  The  assurance  that  all  awkward  haggling  and 
mussing  of  table  cloths  will  be  overlooked  gives  cour- 
age to  persevere  in  the  undertaking.  A  girl  can  easily 
master  many  parts  of  this  useful  art  before  attempting 
to  carve  a  fowl  or  joint  of  meat  at  the  table. 

In  cutting  up  raw  fowls  for  stews,  fricassees,  etc.,  she 
can  learn  to  locate  each  joint  so  accurately  that  she  will 
never  cut  into  a  bone  when  the  object  is  to  sever  smoothly 
the  leg  or  wing  of  a  fowl  at  table. 


CARVING.  217 

It  is  an  easy  matter,  by  studying  cuts  of  raw  meat,  to 
learn  which  way  the  muscle  fibers  run  in  different  parts  of 
the  animal,  and  thus  avoid  cutting  with  the  grain  of  the 
meat,  instead  of  across  it. 

One  thing  more  should  be  learned  in  private, — how  to 
sharpen  a  knife.  The  carver  must  be  sharp.  No  woman 
is  independent  unless  she  can  sharpen  a  knife.  Armed 
with  this  amount  of  knowledge,  the  task  of  becoming  a 
good  carver  will  be  much  lessened. 

A  roast  of  pork  loin  should  have  each  division  of  the 
vertebrae  made  before  coming  into  the  kitchen. 

The  platter  on  which  any  piece  of  meat  is  served  must 
be  large  enough  to  hold  the  meat  and  leave  sufficient 
space  for  the  slices  when  cut.  A  very  small  platter  ren- 
ders it  impossible  for  the  carver  to  work  successfully 
without  soiling  the  carving  cloth,  the  table  cloth,  or  both. 

To  Carve  a  Beefsteak. 

Remove  the  bone,  and  cut  the  meat  in  narrow  strips. 
Serve  some  of  the  choicest  meat  with  a  bit  of  the  tougher 
portion,  and  a  little  fat,  if  there  be  any,  to  each  person. 

To  Carve  a  Sirloin  Koast. 

Remove  the  tenderloin,  slice  as  thin  as  practicable,  and 
serve  some  of  this  with  some  of  the  sirloin  cut  in  thin 
slices. 

To  Carve  a  Joint  of  Meat  Boiled  or  Roasted. 

Place  the  platter  on  the  table  so  that  the  thin  side  of  the 
joint  will  be  toward  the  carver,  and  the  shank  on  the  left. 
Place  the  carving  fork  so  that  the  joint  can  be  held 
firmly  and  tipped  at  will.  Hold  the  meat  with  the  thick 
side  up,  and  cut  as  many  slices  as  possible.  Cut  very 
thin.  Separate  all  the  slices  at  the  lower  side  by  passing 
the  knife  along  very  near  the  bone.  Remove  the  fork, 
turn  the  joint,  and  carve  the  other  side  in  the  same  way. 

Serve  roast  lamb  with  mint  sauce,   roast  mutton  or 


218 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


venison  with  currant  jelly,  boiled  mutton  with  caper  or 
egg  sauce. 

To  Carve  a  Loin  of  Pork,  Veal,  etc. 

Cut  in  slices  as  thin  as  possible,  and  pass  the  knife 
through  the  natural  divisions  of  the  vertebrae,  which 
have  been  severed  before  the  roast  came  into  the  kitchen. 


Game  Carver. 

To  Carve  a  Saddle  of  Mutton,  Lamb  or  Venison. 

A  saddle  is  merely  a  double  loin,  and  should  be  carved 
in   the   same   way.     If   the    kidney   and   tenderloin   are 
cooked  in  the  roast,  as  they  often  are,  remove  them  with 
the  fat,  and  serve  a  bit.  of  each  on  every  plate. 
To  Carve  Cuts  from  the  Forequarter. 

The  cuts  from  the  forequarter  are  more  difficult  to 
carve  satisfactorily  than  those  from  the  hindquarter.  In 
order  to  carve  these  cuts  successfully,  keep  the  following 
points  in  view :  Locate  the  hidden  bones,  and  remember 
the  direction  of  the  muscles.  Cut  across  the  grain,  and 
make  as  good-looking  slices  as  possible.  It  is  really  better 
that  the  pieces  which  are  very  awkward  to  carve  be  sliced 
in  the  kitchen  or  pantry. 
To  Carve  a  Turkey. 

Place  the  bird  on  the  platter  with  the  breast  up.     Set 
the  platter  so  that  the  neck  is  at'  the  carver's  left  hand. 


CARVING.  219 

Place  the  fork  astride  the  breast  bone,  and  sink  the 
prongs  firmly  into  the  flesh.  Tip  the  turkey  a  little  to  lift 
one  wing  from  the  platter,  and  sever  at  the  joint.  Re- 
move the  other  wing  in  the  same  way.  Sever  the  drum- 
sticks from  the  second  joints,  cutting  from  above.  Sepa- 
rate the  second  joint  into  three  parts  by  cutting  off  a 
slice  on  each  side  parallel  with  the  bone.  Let  the  part  re- 
maining on  the  bone  be  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
wide.  Separate  the  bone  from  the  body.  Cut  the  meat 
of  the  drumsticks  from  the  bone.  Slice  the  breast  in  thin, 
nice-shaped  pieces.  Remove  the  breast  bone  by  turning 
the  tip  back.  Remove  the  shoulder  blade  in  a  similar 
manner.  Serve  portions  of  white  and  dark  meat  and 
some  dressing  to  each  guest.  To  finish  the  carving,  cut 
through  the  cartilage,  and  separate  the  back  from  the  rib 
pieces  by  turning  with  skin  side  up,  and  lifting  the  tail  end 
with  a  fork  while  the  knife  rests  just  below  the  ribs,  and 
thus  break  it.  Cut  close  to  the  backbone,  and  thus  di- 
vide the  back  lengthwise. 

A  chicken  is  carved  in  the  same  manner  as  a  turkey, 
except  that  the  legs  and  second  joints  are  left  whole. 

To  Carve  a  Goose  or  a  Duck. 

Geese  and  ducks  furnish  little  meat  except  on  the 
breast.  The  legs,  wings,  and  back  have  a  scant  amount, 
and  that  is  not  choice.  Slice  the  breast  across  the  grain, 
in  as  nice  pieces  as  possible. 

To  Carve  a  Broiled  Chicken. 

Broiled  chicken  should  be  divided  in  two  parts  length- 
wise, and  one-half  served  to  each  guest. 

To  Carve  Squirrels,  Suckling  Pigs,  etc. 

Proceed  in  same  manner  as  with  larger  animals  of 
similar  kind. 

The  loin  is  considered  the  choicest  part  of  a  squirrel 
or  hare.  The  rib  is  the  best  part  of  the  suckling  pig. 

References:  Carving  and  Serving— Lincoln;  Art  of  Cook- 
ery— Ewing. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


ALBUMEN  COOKING. 

Eggs,  meat,  and  milk  each  contain  the  element  known 
as  "albumen,"  and  they  each  require  special  care  in  cook- 
ing to  give  best  results  in  flavor  of  food  and  in  capa- 
bility of  assimilation.  Eggs  are  universally  used  as  food 
during  such  portions  of  the  year  as  they  are  moderate 
or  cheap  in  price.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  they  are 
at  other  times  discarded  from  the  bill  of  fare  in  the  form 
of  plain  eggs,  and  used  only  in  cakes  and  such  mixtures. 
Better  leave  off  the  cake,  which  is  at  best  a  questionable 
food,  and  use  the  eggs  in  their  own  form,  since  they  are 
known  to  be  wholesome  food,  and  also  promote  good 
health  by  giving  variety  when  it  is  much  needed. 

The  hen  furnishes  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  eggs 
which  are  used  as  food.  The  eggs  of  the  guinea  fowl, 
duck,  and  goose  are  used  to  some  extent.  The  eggs  of 
some  wild  birds  are  greatly  esteemed.  Plover  eggs  are 
much  used  in  England  and  Germany.  In  the  United 
States,  the  eggs  of  some  seabirds,  as  gulls,  terns,  herons, 
and  murres  are  gathered  in  large  quantities.  The  eggs  of 
some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  water  are  highly  prized, 
viz.,  those  of  the  turtle,  the  shad,  and  the  sturgeon.  .Tur- 
tle eggs  are  generally  used  to  embellish  the  dish  pre- 
pared from  the  turtle  meat.  The  eggs  of  the  sturgeon  are 
usually  preserved  in  salt,  and  made  into  an  edible  known 
as  "caviar."  Shad-roe  is  usually  broiled  or  sauted,  and 
served  with  the  fish,  or  made  into  a  salad. 

Hens'  eggs  are  prepared  and  served  in  a  great  many 
ways,  and  enter  into  the  composition  of  many  dishes. 


ALBUMEN    COOKING. 

When  in  skillful  hands,  they  are  unexcelled  as  a  means 
of  producing  light  and  delicate  cakes,  palatable  muffins, 
cornbreads,  etc.  With  milk,  they  become  the  thicken- 
ing agent  in  sauces,  custards,  puddings,  etc.  Whether 
they  are  used  alone,  or  combined  with  other  foods,  the 
principle  in  cooking  remains  the  same, — they  must  have  a 
moderate,  even  heat.  The  difference  in  appearance  and  tex- 
ture of  eggs  cooked  properly  and  those  cooked  quickly  in  a 
high  heat  can  be  readily  shown  by  the  use  of  a  test  tube. 
Put  some  white  of  egg  in  a  test  tube,  and  hold  the  tube  in 
boiling  water  until  the  egg  is  hard  boiled.  On  examina- 
tion, it  will  be  found  tough  and  somewhat  elastic,  and 
smaller  in  bulk  than  before  heating.  Cook  a  custard,  an 
omelet,  or  an  angel  cake  at  a  high  heat,  and  the  effect  on 
the  egg  will  be  seen  in  a  watery  custard,  a  fallen  omelet, 
and  a  flat  angel  cake^  Take  another  test  tube,  and  put  the 
same  amount  of  egg  into  it,  and  immerse  in  water,  but  do 
not  allow  the  temperature  to  rise  above  160°  F.  On  ex- 
amination, the  egg  will  be  found  coagulated,  but  easily 
divided, — more  like  excellent  jelly  in  consistency.  Now 
take  two  eggs  of  the  same  size,  or  as  nearly  the  same  size 
as  possible,  and  from  the  same  room,  that  the  tempera- 
ture may  be  the  same.  Immerse  one  egg  in  boiling  wa- 
ter two  minutes,  open  it  at  once,  and  you  will  find  a  thin 
coating  of  white  next  to  the  shell,  where  the  heat  was 
most  intense,  and  the  rest  of  the  white-  will  be  a  milky 
semi-fluid  or  raw  mass ;  the  yolk  will  be  fluid  and  warm, 
but  raw.  Boil  a  pint  of  water  in  a  graniteware  saucepan, 
immerse  the  other  egg,  set  it  on  the  table,  and  let  stand 
six  minutes.  An  egg  which  has  stood  in  a  room  at  sum- 
mer heat,  treated  thus,  will  show  a  jelly-like  white, 
scarcely  cooked  enough  to  change  the  flavor  of  a  raw  egg ; 
but  if  taken  from  the  refrigerator,  and  put  into  water  of 
the  same  amount  and  temperature,  the  white  nearest  the 
shell  will  be  white  and  creamy,  and  the  other  apparently 
raw.  An  egg  taken  from  a  room  at  summer  heat,  and 
immers"ed  in  a  pint  of  water  which  is  boiling  when  set 


222  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

off,  and  left  ten  minutes,  will  give  an  egg  cooked  just  a 
little  more  than  the  six-minute  egg.  An  egg  treated  in 
the  same  way,  and  left  twenty  minutes,  will  give  the 
white  well  cooked,  and  the  yolk  nearly  all  cooked. 

An  egg  cooked  in  water,  the  thermometer  in  which 
stands  at  160°  to  165°  F.,  will  be  stiff  enough  in  twenty 
minutes  so  that  the  yolk  will  stand  up  like  a  marble.  The 
thermometer  must  not  go  above  165°  F.,  nor  below  160° 
F.,  during  time  of  test. 

When  an  egg  is  cooked  in  the  ordinary  way,  whether 
medium  or  soft  boiled,  it  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  boil- 
ing water  until  it  is  thoroughly  cooked,  and  the  yolk  set ; 
but  the  white  nearest  the  shell  is  necessarily  hard  and 
horny,  because  the  heat  constantly  acts  on  it,  while  that 
farther  away  toward  the  center  of  the  egg  does  not  be- 
gin to  cook  at  once.  Such  an  egg  will  be  acted  upon  by 
the  digestive  fluids  with  more  difficulty,  because  mastica- 
tion divides  it  into  small,  hard  bits,  while  the  egg  with 
the  creamy  white  presents  no  such  obstacle  to  digestive 
action.  An  egg  hard  boiled  in  boiling  water  shrinks 
more  and  becomes  harder  than  either  the  soft  or  medium 
boiled,  because  subjected  for  a  longer  time  to  the  action 
of  the  boiling  water. 

Those  who  have  made  experiments  to  ascertain  how 
eggs  cooked  for  different  lengths  of  time  compare  in  di- 
gestibility find  that  the  time  of  cooking  affects  the  rate 
of  digestion,  but  does  not  materially  affect  the  total  di- 
gestibility of  the  food.  The  experiments  were,  of  course, 
made  on  a  healthy  man.  It  seems  reasonable  to  believe 
that  an  egg  cooked  at  a  temperature  below  the  boiling 
point,  on  account  of  its  jelly-like  consistency,  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  divided  and  acted  upon  in  the 
mouth  and  stomach,  would  certainly  be  better  for  a  deli- 
cate stomach.  It  seems  that  a  hard-boiled  egg,  unless 
thoroughly  masticated,  would  present  some  difficulty  to 
the  digestive  fluids,  even  in  a  healthy  stomach.  Ameri- 


ALBUMEN   COOKING.  223 

cans  are  rapid  eaters,  and  consequently  their  food  is  not 
always  well  masticated. 

Eggs  for  the  table  should  be  perfectly  fresh.  A  stale 
egg  has  a  poor  flavor,  and  a  less  pleasing  appearance  than 
a  fresh  egg,  whether  in  the  shell  or  prepared  in  some 
other  way.  There  are  many  stages  of  staleness. 

A  perfectly  fresh  egg  will  show  a  clear  red  when 
looked  through  toward  the  light.  An  egg  in  which  there 
is  a  spider-like  appearance  has  probably  been  set  on  two 
or  three  days.  An  egg  in  which  dark  spots  are  seen  near 
the  larger  end  has  been  left  too  long  in  a  dirty  or  warm 
hen  house,  and  successive  layers  have  heated  it.  Eggs 
which  have  lain  several  weeks,  or  have  been  packed  some 
time,  may  have  a  musty  taste. 

Eggs  to  be  served  in  the  shell  must  be  positively  fresh. 
A  warm  egg  cup  should  be  sent  with  each  order.  The 
egg  cup  may  be  large  enough  to  break  the  egg  into,  or,  if 
the  guest  prefers,  he  may  have  a  cup  so  small  that  the 
egg  will  rest  in  the  top  of  the  cup,  and  can  be  eaten  from 
the  shell  with  a  spoon,  thus  insuring  its  remaining  hot, 
The  flavor  of  a  fresh  egg  is  usually  satisfactory,  though 
there  are  cases  in  which  improper  food  affects  the  flavor 
of  the  eggs  deleteriously. 

Eggs,  to  be  perfectly  fresh  and  nice,  should  be  gath- 
ered two  or  three  times  a  day  and  kept  in  a  cool,  well-ven- 
tilated place.  When  eggs  are  strictly  fresh,  they  will  keep 
for  some  time  at  a  temperature  of  60°  F.  Siebel  states 
that  32°  to  33°  F.  is  the  best  temperature  for  storage 
eggs  when  packed  in  the  shell.  Eggs  should  never  be 
kept  with  anything  which  has  a  strong  or  disagreeable 
odor,  as  they  readily  absorb  whatever  is  in  the  surround- 
ing atmosphere.  For  further  information  on  preserving 
and  packing  eggs  see  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  packing  eggs  for 
home  use,  it  is  better  to  use  only  those  with  clean  shells, 
and  pack  unwashed.  Eggs  in  bulk  are  sometimes  kept  in 


224  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cold  storage.  In  this  case,  the  contents  of  the  shell  are 
separated,  the  yolks  beaten  enough  to  mix  them  thor- 
oughly, put  into  tin  cans  and  frozen.  The  egg  whites  are 
packed  in  cans  and  frozen  also.  They  can  thus  be  bought 
separately  if  one  wishes.  They  will  not  keep  long  after 
thawing. 

The  egg  powders,  etc.,  found  on  the  market  are  not 
usually  very  satisfactory,  even  when  eggs  are  high;  but 
there  are  cases  in  which  the  product  seems  to  be  genuine 
egg,  dried  and  coarsely  ground.  These  give  satisfactory 
results,  but  they  are  not  always  found  reasonable  in 
price.  t 

Weight  of  Eggs. 

The  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station,  in  some  ex- 
periments lately  concluded,  has  brought  out  the  following 
facts:  Eggs  from  different  breeds  of  hens,  if  sold  by 
weight,  would  vary  from  twelve  to  twenty  cents  a  dozen, 
while  a  dozen  eggs  of  the  Pekin  duck  would  be  worth 
twenty  cents  a  dozen  at  the  same  price  per  pound.  This 
shows  how  foolish  it  is  for  us  to  use  eggs  by  count 
rather  than  measure  in  our  recipes  for  making  different 
dishes. 

Nutritive  Value  of  Eggs. 

The  following  table  from  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128 
shows  that  eggs  resemble  meat  and  other  animal  foods 
in  composition.  There  is  not  a  great  difference  in  the 
food  value  of  hens'  eggs  and  the  eggs  of  other  domes- 
tic fowls.  The  yolk  and  the  white  of  eggs  differ  in 
the  following  particulars :  The  yolk  contains  much  fat 
and  a  goodly  amount  of  mineral  matter.  The  white  is 
particularly  free  from  fat,  and  has  very  little  mineral  mat- 
ter. The  white  contains  less  water  and  less  protein  than 
the  yolk.  When  eggs  are  properly  cooked  they  are  very 
thoroughly  digested.  Eggs  are  valuable  food,  not  only 
because  of  the  valuable  nutrients  they  contain,  but  also 
because  they  are  an  almost  universal  favorite,  and  there- 


ALBUMEN    COOKING. 


225 


fore  aid  much  in  giving  needed  variety,  and  in  making 
other  foods  palatable.  It  will  be  further  noticed  that 
there  is  practically  no  difference  in  the  food  value  of 
brown-shelled  and  white-shelled  eggs,  despite  the  fact 
that  they  have  in  some  places  a  different  market  value. 

Average  of  Composition  of  Eggs,  Egg  Products,  etc.,  and  Certain  Other  Foods. 
From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  128. 


rdrates, 

*t 

11 

\ 

Refuse, 
Per  cenl 

Water, 
Per  cenl 

Protein 
Per  cen 

il 

Carboh: 
Per  cenl 

Ash, 
Per  cen 

s§ 

!* 

Whole  egg  as  purchased     

11  2 

6S  *> 

11  9 

q  s 

0  9 

635 

"        "    edible  portion.... 

78  7 

134 

10  5 

1  0 

720 

White 

86  2 

12  3 

0  2 

0  6 

250 

Yolk.                       

49  5 

15  7 

33  3 

1  l 

1,705 

Evaporated  hen's  egg  

6  4 

16  9 

36  0 

7  1 

3  6 

2,525 

Egg  substitute  

11.4 

7S  9 

3 

^  S 

ft  1 

1,480 

Pudding  (custard)  powder  
Sirloin  steak  as  purchased  
"          "    edible  portion  

12.8 

13.0 
54.0 
61  9 

2.1 
16.5 
IS  9 

3.4 
16.1 
18  5 

80.9 

.6 
.9 
1  0 

1,690 
985 
1,130 

Cheese  as  purchased  
Milk. 

34.2 
87  0 

25.9 
3  3 

33.7 
4  0 

2.4 

5  o 

3.8 

7 

1,950 
325 

Wheat  flour  

1^0 

11  4 

1  0 

75  1 

^ 

1,650 

Egg  and  Milk  Dishes. 

In  preparing  dishes  composed  largely  of  milk  and  eggs, 
the  points  to  be  specially  guarded  are  putting  the  two 
together  when  hot,  and  cooking  at  the  proper  tempera- 
ture, and  for  the  right  length  of  time.  When  making -a 
dish  in  which  part  of  the  hot  milk  is  poured  over  the  eggs, 
pour  the  milk  in  a  small  stream  on  the  beaten  eggs,  stir- 
ring all  the  time,  and  when  the  bowl  is  full,  the  mixture 
will  be  so  thin  that  it  can  be  added  to  the  rest  of  the  hot 
milk  without  lumping.  Such  dishes  must  be  cooked,  and 
not  too  long,  for  the  egg  will  shrink  in  the  milk  the  same  as 
when  alone  in  an  omelet  or  in  the  shell.  When  a  large 
quantity  of  custard  is  made,  as  for  ice  cream,  it  must  be 
set  in  cold  water  and  stirred  when  removed  from  the  fire, 
else  the  heat  of  the  bulk  will  make  the  eggs  too  hard,  and 
the  custard  will  curdle.  Dishes  composed  of  eggs  and 
milk  are  highly  nutritious,  and  when  properly  prepared, 

8 


226  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

easily  made  use  of  in  the  body.  When  cornstarch  or  ar- 
rowroot is  used  in  connection  with  milk  and  eggs,  the 
starch  should  be  mixed  with  the  sugar  and  added  to  the 
hot  milk,  or  add  as  much  cold  milk  in  bulk  as  there  is 
starch,  stir  well,  add  to  the  milk,  and  let  cook  until  the 
starch  is  done.  For  cooking  dishes  in  which  eggs  and 
milk  are  used,  follow  the  general  rule  for  cooking  protein 
foods, — use  a  low  gentle  heat,  not  too  long  continued. 
Where  the  yolks  and  whites  are  used  separately  in  a  dish, 
pouring  the  hot  mixture,  after  yolks  and  milk  are  cooked 
together,  over  the  well-beaten  whites,  usually  cooks  them 
sufficiently.  Milk  is  changed  by  heat,  and  both  flavor 
and  digestibility  are  affected  deleteriously  by  a  high  heat. 
Dishes  should  not  be  flavored  too  highly.  Cooked  eggs 
have  a  flavor  which  may  be  more  palatable  when  modified 
somewhat  by  another  flavoring  material,  but  should  not  be 
entirely  obliterated. 

Soft  Boiled  Eggs— For  Class  Work. 

Place  a  medium-sized  egg  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water  in 
a  small  saucepan.  Remove  from  stove,  and  let  stand  ten 
minutes,  for  a  soft  egg,  or  twenty  minutes  for  a  medium 
boiled  egg.  If  a  number  of  eggs  are  to  be  cooked,  boil 
lialf  the  amount  of  water  in  the  vessel,  put  the  eggs  into 
*it  and  set  aside.  After  it  has  stood  ten  minutes,  pour 
it  off,  and  pour  on  the  remaining  half  of  the  water  boiling 
hot,  cover,  and  let  stand  the  allotted  time. 

Hard  Boiled  Eggs. 

To  hard  boil  an  egg,  put  it  into  one  pint  of  boiling 
water  and  let  it  remain  there  for  twenty  minutes.  Keep 
the  water  boiling.  This  will  render  the  yolk  dry  and 
mealy.  Or  put  the  egg  into  cold  water,  bring  the  water 
to  the  boiling  point,  after  which  allow  the  egg  to  remain 
fifteen  minutes,  which  will  accomplish  the  same  result. 

Dropped  or  Poached  Eggs. 

Have  the  water  in  a  spider  boiling  hot,  and  salted  quite 


ALBUMEN   COOKING.  227 

salt.  Break  each  egg  separately  into  a  small  dish  and 
slip  from  this  into  the  boiling  hot  water.  Set  on  the  back 
of  the  stove,  where  the  water  will  remain  hot,  but  will  not 
boil,  cover  and  let  stand  three  or  four  minutes,  or  until  the 
eggs  are  cooked  as  desired. 

To  Poach  Eggs  in  Milk. 

Butter  the  dish  in  which  the  eggs  are  to  be  poached. 
Put  into  it  the  milk  and  a  little  salt,  let  heat  almost  to  boil- 
ing, but  do  not  burn.  Break  eggs  separately  into  a  cup 
and  slip  gently  into  the  milk  to  avoid  breaking  the  yolks. 
When  done,  lift  onto  previously  prepared  toast  (but- 
tered) and  pour  milk  over  all. 

Scrambled  Eggs  No.  1. 

Break  into  a  dish  the  desired  number  of  eggs,  and  beat 
until  well  mixed,  but  not  light.  Put  in  a  basin  one  table- 
spoonful  of  boiling  water  or  hot  milk  for  each  egg.  Pour 
the  water  into  the  eggs,  pour  slowly,  and  stir  constantly. 
When  mixed,  put  into  a  spider  one  teaspoonful  of  bacon 
fat  for  each  egg,  and  when  this  becomes  very  hot,  pour 
the  egg  mixture  in,  and  stir  all  the  time  as  it  heats,  keep- 
ing it  well  broken.  When  of  a  creamy  consistency,  sea- 
son and  serve. 

Scrambled  Eggs  No.  2.  ! ; 

Beat  one  whole  egg  well.  Make  a  white  sauce  by 
using  one-half  tablespoonful  of  flour  to  one-fourth  cup 
of  milk,  cook  together  until  it  thickens,  then  pour  it  over 
the  beaten  egg  and  mix  well ;  turn  this  into  a  hot  omelet 
pan,  which  has  been  greased  with  one-fourth  teaspoonful 
of  butter.  With  a  spoon  scrape  the  egg  mixture  from 
the  bottom  of  the  omelet  pan  as  it  cooks.  Just  before  re- 
moving from  the  fire,  dust  with  salt  and  pepper  if  de- 
sired. Do  not  cook  too  rapidly. 

Curried  Eggs. 

Make  a  sauce  of  chicken  stock  and  cream  or  of  milk 
alone,  using  one  tablespoonful  of  flour  and  one  of  butter  to 


228  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

one  and  one-half  cups  of  liquid.  Season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per and  one  teaspoonful  of  curry- powder.  Remove  the 
shells  of  six  hard-boiled  eggs,  cut  in  halves  or  slices,  and 
place  them  in  a  deep  buttered  saucepan.  Pour  the  sauce 
over  them,  simmer  three  minutes,  and  serve  on  delicately 
browned  toast. 

Or,  when  the  curry  sauce  is  boiling  hot,  drop  raw  eggs 
into  it,  cover,  and  let  set  on  the  back  of  the  stove  four  or 
five  minutes.  Serve  on  toast. 

Baked  Eggs. 

Grease  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  baking  dish  or 
spider.  Into  this  carefully  slip  the  eggs  one  at  a  time  from 
the  small  dish  into  which  they  were  broken.  Put  on  the 
the  top  of  each  egg  a  small  piece  of  butter,  and  sprinkle 
over  them  pepper  and  salt. 

Or,  sprinkle  over  the  eggs  buttered  and  seasoned  bread 
crumbs.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven  five  minutes,  or  until 
cooked  as  desired.  More  than  five  minutes  will  bake  them 
hard.  Minced  ham  may  be  used  with  the  bread  crumbs, 
if  desired. 

Eggs  Baked  in  Tomato  Cups. 

Select  medium-sized,  firm,  ripe  tomatoes.  Wash  and 
wipe  dry.  Cut  off  a  slice  from  the  blossom  end  of  each 
tomato  and  scoop  out  the  inside.  When  as  many  are  pre- 
pared as  desired,  dust  the  inside  of  the  cup  with  seasoned 
bread  crumbs.  Break  into  each  cup  an  egg,  replace  the 
slice  cut  from  the  tomato,  set  in  a  dripping  pan,  and  bake 
twenty  minutes  in  a  slow  oven.  Serve  hot. 

Baked  Eggs  in  Potato  Nests. 

Line  a  baking  dish,  or  escollop  shells,  with  cold  mashed 
potato  put  through  a  ricer.  The  potato  should  be  at  least 
one  inch  in  thickness.  With  a  fork  or  spoon  make  a  nest 
for  the  egg  in  the  potato.  Carefully  drop  the  egg  into 
this,  cover  with  seasoned  bread  crumbs,  and  bake  in  a 
moderate  oven  seven  minutes  if  the  eggs  are  desired  soft 
Serve  in  the  dish  in  which  they  are  baked. 


ALBUMEN   COOKING. 


229 


Shirred  Eggs. 

Beat  the  egg  whites  till  very  light,  put  them  in  mounds 
on  the  platter  on  which  they  are  to  be  served.  Make 
with  a  spoon  a  hollow  in  the  top  of  each  mound,  and  in 
this  put  a  whole  egg  yolk.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven  until  the 
whites  are  a  delicate  brown,  season  with  salt  and  pepper 
and  bits  of  butter.  Cut  together  before  eating. 

Creamed  Egg  Yolks. 

When  making  angel  cake,  drop  each  yolk,  as  the  eggs 
are  broken,  into  boiling  hot  water,  and  set  where  they  will 
cook  gently  until  done.  Make  a  white  sauce  of  one  and 


Shirred  Egg- Shell  for  Baking. 

one-half  tablespoon fuls  of  flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter, and  one  cup  of  milk.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper, 
add  one  teaspoonful  of  chopped  parsley  (very  fine),  and 
pour  over  the  well-cooked  yolks.  Serve  with  plain  boiled 
or  baked  potatoes. 

This  may  be  varied  by  using  half  as  many  mushrooms 
as  egg  yolks. 

Light  Omelet. 

Beat  the  yolks  of  two  eggs  until  very  light.    Then  beat 
the  wljites,  to  which  two  tablespoon  fuls  of  water,  milk,  or 


230  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cream  have  been  added,  fold  together,  put  in  the  greased 
omelet  pan,  let  stand  until  set  on  the  bottom,  then  put 
into  the  oven,  and  let  remain  until  firm  and  lightly  cooked 
to  the  center,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  trying  with  a 
knife.  Cook  in  a  very  slow  oven.  This  omelet  is  often 
used  without  a  sauce. 

Sauce  for  Light  Omelet. 

Equal  parts  of  white  of  egg  and  whipped  cream,  sweet- 
ened and  flavored.     More  cream  than  egg  may  be  used. 


Turning  Out  an  Omelet. 

Nice  for  luncheon.     A  spoon  is  best  for  mixing  white  and 
cream.     Strawberry  juice  may  be  used  instead  of  cream. 

Plain  Omelet. 

Two  eggs,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water  (hot).  Beat 
-until  the  eggs  can  be  lifted  without  running  off  the  spoon. 
Heat  one-half  tablespoonful  of  clarified  butter  or  bacon 
fat  in  an  omelet  pan,  but  be  careful  not  to  burn  it.  If 
any  dressing  is  used,  put  in  just  before  folding,  except 
parsley,  which  put  on  when  beginning  to  lift.  Grated 


ALBUMEN   COOKING.  231 

cheese  may  be  used  same  as  parsley,  or  it  may  be  put  on 
when  turned.    Manipulate  same  as  cornstarch  omelet. 

Fruit  Omelet. 

To  the  yolk  of  one  large  egg,  beaten  until  very  light, 
add  one  tablespoonful  of  fruit  juice.  If  orange  is  used 
put  in  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  grated  orange  peel. 
If  peach  is  used,  add  one-fourth  of  a  grated  peach  pit,  and 
a  very  little  cream  of  tartar  in  the  whites  before  beating. 
If  the  fruit  is  unsweetened,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  sugar, 
beat  well  together.  Beat  the  white  until  very  stiff,  and 
fold  in  the  beaten  yolk.  Cook  very  slowly  in  a  well- 
greased  omelet  pan. 

Caramel  Omelet — For  Home  Work. 

Two  eggs,  whites  and  yolks  beaten  separately  until  very 
light.  Add  to  the  beaten  yolks  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
caramel,  and  beat  together  until  well  mixed ;  also  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  sugar,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  vanilla,  and 
one  teaspoonful  of  lemon.  Fold  this  and  the  beaten 
whites  together  and  cook  slowly  in  the  oven  in  a  greased 
pan  until  done.  Fold  same  as  a  light  omelet. 

Caramel  Omelet — For  Class  Work. 

One  egg,  one  tablespoonful  of  caramel,  one-fourth  tea- 
spoonful  of  vanilla,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice, 
one  teaspoonful  of  sugar.  Put  together  and  cook  as 
above. 

Caramel :  One  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of  water. 
Boil  until  amber  colored,  then  add  one  cup  of  water,  and 
cook  until  a  thick  syrup  is  made. 

Tomato  Omelet. 

Make  a  plain  omelet,  and  when  ready  to  fold  pour  over 
it  one-half  cup  of  stewed  tomato,  thickened  by  cooking  in 
it  one  teaspoonful  of  butter  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour 
to  one-half  cup  of  the  tomato.  Season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per. -Serve  hot  on  a  warm  plate. 


232  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Ham  Omelet. 

Two  eggs  slightly  beaten,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water ; 
put  together  same  as  plain  omelet.  After  cooking,  cover 
the  top  with  chopped  ham,  fold,  and  serve. 

Cheese  Omelet. 

One  cup  milk,  four  level  tablespoonfuls  of  cornstarch. 
Cook  together.  Pour  this,  when  cool,  over  the  well- 
beaten  yolks  of  four  eggs.  Stir  into  this  four  level  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  bread  crumbs,  and  four  level  teaspoonfuls  of 
cheese.  Fold  in  the  four  whites,  which  have  been  beaten 
stiff.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven  fifteen  minutes. 

Cornstarch  Omelet. 

Cook  together  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  cornstarch  and 
one-half  cup  of  milk.  Cook  until  it  ceases  to  taste  raw, 
then  season  with  salt  and  pepper.  Break  two  eggs,  and 
when  the  sauce  is  cooled  sufficiently  to  not  cook  the  eggs, 
stir  the  sauce  and  eggs  together,  but  do  not  beat,  except 
just  enough  to  mix  well.  Rub  the  omelet  pan  well  with 
dry  salt  to  make  smooth,  then  wipe  the  salt  all  out,  and 
grease  well.  Pour  the  egg  mixture  into  it,  and  set  on 
range,  and  as  it  cooks  lift  from  the  bottom  with  a  fork  to 
let  raw  egg  run  down  and  keep  top  smooth.  When 
cooked  sufficiently,  turn  the  side  next  the  handle  toward 
the  opposite  side,  making  a  turnover  of  the  omelet.  See 
that  it  is  loose  on  the  bottom  and  sides.  Take  the  omelet 
pan  in  the  right  hand  and  the  plate  in  the  left,  and  turn 
omelet  on  the  plate.  When  the  egg  mixture  is  poured 
into  the  pan  it  should  be  not  less  than  one-half  inch  thick. 
If  flour  is  used  instead  of  cornstarch  take  twice  as  much. 

Laggard's  Omelet — For  Home  Work. 

Mix  four  level  teaspoonfuls  of  cornstarch  in  one-half 
pint  of  sweet  milk.  Cook,  stirring  constantly,  until  the 
milk  thickens.  Let  cool  until  it  will  not  cook  the  egg,  then 
mix  the  cooked  milk  and  starch  with  the  yolks  of  three 
large  eggs,  well  beaten.  Beat  the  whites  until  perfectly  light,. 


ALBUMEN   COOKING.  233 

and  fold  with  the  other.     Cook  in  the  same  way  as  a 
light  omelet. 

laggard's  Omelet — For  Class  Work. 

Two  teaspoonfuls  of  cornstarch,  one-half  cup  milk,  one 
large  egg,  white  and  yolk  beaten  separately.  Put  to- 
gether, and  cook  as  above. 

To  grease  the  omelet  pan,  put  plenty  of  fat  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  pan  to  grease  bottom  and  sides  well,  and  cause 
it  to  cover  the  surface  needing  it  by  tipping  the  pan. 

References:  U.  S.  Dept  Agr.,  Office  of  Exp.  Stations,  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  No.  128,  pp.  24-26;  Chemistry  of  Cookery — Wil- 
liams—-pp.  22-24;  Minn.  Bulletin  No.  54,  p.  77. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

CHEESE. 

Cheese  is  an  article  of  food  which  is  manufactured  from 
milk.  Cow's  milk  is  most  extensively  used,  but  the  milk 
of  ewes  and  goats  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  some  of 
the  cheese  of  commerce.  Different  kinds  of  cheese  vary 
greatly  in  appearance,  flavor,  texture,  and  degree  of  hard- 
ness. 

Cottage  Cheese. 

Cottage  cheese  is  the  result  of  a  natural  fermentation, 
and  was  probably  the  first  variety  of  cheese  made  from 
milk.  The  milk  for  cottage  cheese  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  too  sour,  but  should  be  used  when  it  first  becomes 
thick,  and  while  it  is  still  pleasantly  acid.  Heat  it  to  100° 
F.,  or  set  it  in  a  kettle  of  boiling  water,  stirring  all  the 
time  to  prevent  some  portions  becoming  too  hot.  When 
it  is  ready,  pour  into  a  strainer  made  by  folding  a  yard  of 
thin  muslin  diagonally,  and  sewing  the  sides  together, 
and  hang  up  to  drain.  When  the  whey  has  drained  out, 
season  the  cheese  with  salt,  and  -add  white  pepper,  if 
liked.  Stir  in  enough  sweet  cream  to  moisten,  or,  in  the 
absence  of  that,  use  sour  cream  or  butter  enough  to  flavor 
nicely.  Serve  cold.  When  the  milk  is  made  too  hot 
or  heated  too  long  the  curd  is  hard  and  tough,  instead 
of  soft  and  creamy,  as  it  should  be.  Cottage  cheese  may  be 
made  by  putting  the  sour  milk  into  a  vessel  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  of  enough  boiling  water  being  poured  onto 
the  milk  to  coagulate  it.  Proceed  as  before. 

Rennet  is  used  to  coagulate  the  casein  in  order  to  sepa- 
rate it  from  the  whey.  Fresh-made  cheese  is  not  palat- 
able, and  has  little  market  value. 

Cheese  is  a  valuable  article  of  food  to  combine  with 
other  foods,  both  on  account  of  its  giving  greater  palata- 


CHEESE.  235 

bility  and  greater  food  value.  It  can  well  be  combined 
with  milk  or  with  eggs,  as  in  macaroni  with  cheese,  cheese 
souffle,  cheese  toast,  welsh  rarebit,  etc. 

French  Cheese. 

France  produces  many  varieties  of  cheese.  Among  the 
most  famous  are  the  Roquefort,  Gruyere,  Port  du  Salut, 
Brie,  Camembert,  and  Neufchatel.  The  Roquefort  is  a 
rich,  creamy  cheese,  made  from  the  milk  of  ewes.  The 
veined  appearance  of  this  cheese  is  due  to  the  mold  in- 
serted by  the  peasantry  who  manufacture  the  cheese.  It 
is  stated  that  in  no  other  place  are  the  conditions  so  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  bacteria  which  give  to  this  cheese 
its  characteristic  flavor.  The  Gruyere  is  a  thick,  firm 
cheese  used  in  cooking.  Port  du  Salut  is  a  soft,  creamy 
cheese,  delicately  flavored,  made  at  Bordeaux.  It  is  of  no 
interest  to  people  in  general,  as  it  is  not  used  until  ripened 
almost  to  decay.  Neufchatel  is  a  rich,  creamy,  white 
cheese,  somewhat  resembling  cottage  cheese.  It  is  used 
as  a  dessert  cheese.  Camembert  is  a  small  hand-made 
cheese,  which  is  not  considered  ready  for  use  until  first 
covered  with  a  white  mold,  then  with  a  green  mold  out- 
side of  that.  The  Brie  is  a  large,  soft  cheese,  resembling 
Camembert. 

Holland  Cheese. 

The  Gouda  and  Edam  are  Holland  cheeses.  The  Edam 
is  a  rich  cheese,  though  rather  hard.  It  is  round  in  shape, 
and  colored  red  on  the  outside. 

English  Cheese. 

Of  the  English  cheeses,  the  Stilton  and  Double  Glou- 
cester may  be  taken  as  representatives  of  those  in  which 
much  cream  is  used  in  the  manufacture.  Gloucester  is  a 
cheese  mild  in  flavor,  and  is  a  fine  cheese  for  cooked  cheese 
dishes.  The  Stilton  belongs  to  the  same  class  of  cheese, 
but  is  so  well  cured  that  it  has  a  very  strong  flavor.  The 
Cheddar  is  a  famous  English  cheese.  It  is  pale  in  color, 
a  little'less  rich  than  the  Double  Gloucester,  and  has  a  deli- 


236  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cious  flavor.  Parmesan  is  less  rich  in  fat  than  either  of 
the  others.  It  is  a  large,  very  hard  cheese,  which  must 
be  grated  for  use,  but  gives  a  fine  flavor  to  macaroni  and 
some  other  cooked  dishes.  The  Parmesan  is  colored  and 
artificially  flavored  with  saffron. 
American  Cheese. 

The  American  cheeses  are  of  most  interest  to  Ameri- 
cans. The  bulk  of  the  cheese  made  in  America  is  man- 
ufactured by  some  form  of  the  cheddar  or  sour-curd 
process,  as  distinguished  from  the  sweet-curd  process  un- 
der which  most  of  the  above-named  cheese  is  made.  In 
this  process  the  milk  is  warmed,  rennet,  an  extract  from 
calf's  stomach,  is  added  to  coagulate  the  casein,  and  the 
curd  is  then  cut  into  small  cubical  pieces  with  a  many- 
bladed  knife,  and  kept  warm  until  it  shrinks  to  expel 
most  of  the  moisture,  called  "whey."  The  whey  is  then 
drawn  off  from  the  vat.  It  carries  away  most  of  the 
milk,  sugar,  and  ash,  and  some  of  the  fat,  though  the  fat, 
being  in  small  solid  particles,  and  not  in  solution,  as  in 
case  of  the  sugar  and  ash,  is  mostly  held  in  the  meshes 
of  the  coagulated  casein.  The  curd  is  further  heated  and 
manipulated  to  make  it  firm,  and  it  is  then  placed  under 
pressure  for  a  day  or  so,  and  more  of  the  whey  is  pressed 
out.  In  the  press,  the  curd  is  molded  into  cylindrical 
shapes,  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter,  and  six  inches  or  less 
in  thickness ;  or,  in  Young  Americas,  about  six  inches  in 
diameter,  and  six  to  eight  inches  long.  The  cheese  is  then 
cured  for  several  weeks  in  a  curing  room  at  an  ordinary 
summer  temperature.  This  process  makes  a  cheese  the 
most  universally  relished,  at  least  by  Americans  and  En- 
glishmen. When  made  from  whole  milk,  these  cheeses  are 
known  as  "Full  Cream  Cheddars,"  "Flats,"  and  "Young 
Americas."  When  butter  making  is  combined  with  the 
manufacture  of  cheese,  and  part  of  the  butter  fat  is  re- 
moved before  the  milk  is  made  into  cheese,  the  cheese 
manufactured  is  called  "skim."  A  national  law  requir- 
ing manufacturers  to  tell  the  truth  about  adulterations 


CHEESE.  237 

or  modified  products  would  be  a  great  benefit  alike  to 
producers  and  consumers.  Cheddar  cheese  is  often  used 
in  cooking,  and  experiments  showing  how  its  use  could 
be  extended  in  making  many  appetizing  and  nourishing 
dishes  might  profitably  be  made. 

CHEESE  COOKERY. 

Why  is  cheese  not  more  extensively  used  for  food  in 
this  country?  There  are  two  chief  reasons.  One  is  that 
people  do  not  appreciate  its  value  as  a  food  material.  If 
they  realized  that  twenty-eight  per  cent,  of  cheese  is  pro- 
tein, and  thirty-five  per  cent,  is  fat,  they  would  question 
the  advisability  of  looking  elsewhere  for  a  cheaper  muscle- 
forming  and  heat-producing  food.  A  pound  of  cheese  and 
a  pound  and  a  half  of  the  best  sirloin  steak  represent 
about  the  same  amount  of  food  value.  The  cheese  has  a 
little  more  nutriment  in  it.  The  other  reason  for  using  so 
little  cheese  may  be  found  in  the  prevalent  belief  that 
cheese  is  indigestible.  Experiments  prove  that  people  are 
mistaken  in  this.  Cheese  is  slow  of  digestion,  but  very 
nearly  all  is  digested.  According  to  Konig,  cheese  is  ben- 
eficial in  the  diet  not  only  on  account  of  the  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  it  contains,  but  because  it  aids  in  the 
digestion  of  some  other  foods. 

As  to  the  digestibility  of  raw  cheese  there  seems  to  be 
still  a  difference  of  opinion.  The  Scotch  and  Swiss  peo- 
ple are  known  to  experience  no  difficulty  in  digesting  it. 
Probably  Americans  would  have  less  trouble  if  they  knew 
that  it  contains  more  protein  than  almost  any  other  food, 
and  would  take  small  amounts  of  it  in  the  place  of  meat, 
instead  of  in  addition  to  meat  or  eggs.  It  is  often  eaten 
at  the  end  of  a  meal,  when  the  stomach  is  already  over- 
loaded, arid  must  rid  itself  of  the  great  amount  of  protein 
which  has  been  forced  into  it.  Cheese  should  be  eaten 
often,  rather  than  in  large  quantities  at  one  time. 

All  protein  foods,  if  eaten  cooked,  give  best  results 
when  subjected  for  a  long  time  to  a  gentle  heat  while 


238  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cooking.  Experience  hitherto  leads  to  the  belief  that  this 
statement  is  true.  In  the  case  of  egg  cookery,  a  high  heat 
hardens  the  albumen,  and  evaporates  much  of  the  liquid, 
leaving  a  shrunken,  leathery  mass.  In  cooking  meat 
(boiling,  for  instance),  the  albumen  is  hardened,  the  con- 
nective tissue  softened  and  dissolved,  so  that  there  are 
simply  long,  practically  tasteless  fibres,  instead  of  juicy, 
palatable,  tender  lean  meat. 

When  milk  is  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  the  albumen 
of  the  milk  forms  a  tough  scum  over  the  top,  and  the  milk 
has  a  poorer  flavor  than  when  kept  at  a  lower  heat. 

Vegetable  casein,  such  as  is  found  in  beans,  peas  and 
lentils,  is  subject  to  the  same  general  rule.  In  order  to  be 
most  palatable,  and  furnish  the  greatest  amount  of  nutri- 
tion to  the  body,  such  foods  must  be  cooked  slowly,  and 
for  a  long  time. 

Cheese  is  a  highly  concentrated  protein  food,  manu- 
factured from  milk.  Raw  cheese  is  very  generally  slow  in 
digestion,  often  causing  serious  disturbance  and  distress. 
When  cheese  is  cooked  with  eggs  or  milk,  and  the  general 
rule  for  cooking  protein  foods  is  followed,  it  is  found 
agreeable  in  flavor,  and  much  more  easily  assimilated. 
Cheese  should  not  be  exposed  directly  to  the  heat,  as  it 
is  when  toasted  on  crackers,  etc.,  as  this  renders  it  hard 
and  leathery.  When  mixed  with  eggs  or  milk  before 
cooking,  it  is  soft  and  creamy,  and  a  portion  of  it  ap- 
parently dissolved.  In  this  case,  the  heat  is  a  medium 
one  and  cannot  rise  so  high  as  it  otherwise  would.  Suc- 
cess in  cheese  cookery  depends  somewhat  on  the  kind  of 
cheese  used.  A  skim-milk  cheese  is  tough  when  raw, 
and  very  difficult  to  use  successfully  in  cooked  dishes. 
Such  cheese  contains  much  nutritive  material,  but  the  nu- 
trients are  not  very  valuable  unless  they  can  be  put  into  di- 
gestible form.  When  one  is  compelled  to  use  a  stringy 
cheese  a  little  baking  soda  thrown  into  the  dish  just  as  the 
cheese  begins  to  melt  will  obviate  the  difficulty  somewhat, 
but  the  product  is  never  quite  so  nice  as  with  a  full-cream 


CHEESE.  239 

cheese.  A  little  baking  soda  (an  amount  equal  to  half 
the  size  of  a  pea)  added  to  a  cup  of  grated  cheese,  or  to 
the  ingredients  of  any  cooked  cheese  dish,  is  believed  by 
some  to  divide  the  cheese  into  finer  particles,  and  thus 
render  it  easier  of  digestion.  A  filled  cheese  is  never  sat- 
isfactory for  cooked  dishes,  and  is  less  valuable  as  a  food 
than  a  properly  made  cheese.  Brick  cheese,  though  a 
whole  milk  cheese,  as  found  in  some  markets,  is  very  un- 
satisfactory for  cooking.  This  may  not  be  true  of  all 
brick  cheese.  Some  persons  prefer  to  use  imported  cheese, 
rather  than  risk  a  mistake  by  using  American  cheese. 
The  Double  Gloucester,  a  cheese  mild  in  flavor  and  rich  in 
fat,  is  excellent  in  cooked  dishes.  Parmesan  is  a  skim- 
milk  cheese  of  Italian  manufacture,  and  is,  contrary  to 
the  general  rule,  highly  prized  in  some  cooked  dishes. 
The  absence  of  stringiness  is  probably  due  to  a  difference 
in  ripening. 

Grated  cheese  beaten  into  eggs,  as  in  making  omelets, 
makes  a  palatable  and  wholesome  dish.  The  cheese,  sur- 
rounded by  the  egg  and  slowly  cooked,  is  soft  and  palat- 
able. Of  a  dish  similar  to  the  cheese  omelet,  Mattieu  Wil- 
liams says :  "I  have  made  many  a  hearty  dinner  on  one 
of  these,  plus  a  lump  of  black  bread/'  etc.  His  meal  con- 
sisted of  nothing  in  addition  to  the  omelet  and  bread  ex- 
cept a  beverage,  and  he  adds :  "I  have  tested  the  sustain- 
ing power  of  such  a  meal  by  doing  some  very  stiff  moun- 
tain climbing  and  long  fasting  after  it.  It  is  rather  too 
good — over  nutritious — for  a  man  doing  sedentary  work." 
He  further  states  that  the  cost  of  such  a  meal  was  about 
six  cents. 

At  ordinary  prices,  cheese  and  eggs  will  give  us 
muscle-forming  and  fat-producing  food  in  a  very  cheap 
form  in  this  country  also, 

One  can  easily  test  the  difference  in  digestibility,  or 
ease  with  which  the  food  is  assimilated,  by  eating  a  goodly 
amount  of  raw  cheese  for  supper  one  evening,  and  taking 


240  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

a  dish  of  cooked  cheese  another  time.  Macaroni  with 
cheese  is  a  highly  nutritious  and  very  generally  liked 
cooked  cheese  dish. 

When  milk,  eggs,  and  cheese  are  used  together,  the 
dish  containing  the  mixture  should  be  set  in  a  pan  of 
water  in  the  oven,  and  cooked  the  same  as  a  custard.  A 
similar  dish  may  be  made  by  mixing  grated  cheese  and 
bread  crumbs  in  equal  parts  in  a  dish,  and  pouring  the 
custard  over  them,  and  baking  in  the  same  way.  Toasted 
bread  or  toasted  crackers  may  be  eaten  with  cooked  cheese 
dishes. 

Cheese  Timbales. 

Break  three  eggs  into  a  bowl,  and  beat  as  for  custard. 
Put  into  these  a  cup  of  sweet  milk  and  salt  to  taste  (the 
exact  amount  of  salt  cannot  be  given  as  cheese  varies 
much  in  saltiness).  Stir  in  one-fourth  of  a  cupful  of 
grated  cheese.  Into  this  mixture  pour  three-fourths  of  a 
cup  of  milk,  and  mix  well.  Pour  into  greased  cups,  or 
timbale  molds,  and  set  the  cups  in  a  pan  of  water,  and 
bake  until  firm  in  the  center.  Too  long  baking  will  make 
them  watery,  the  same  as  custard. 

Cheese  Timbales— Class  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  small  egg,  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of 
cheese  (grated).  Make  as  above,  and  bake  in  crumbed 
timbale  molds  until  firm,  but  not  watery. 

Potato  Puffs  with  Cheese. 

One  cup  of  mashed  potatoes,  one-fourth  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  butter.  Beat  together  until 
thoroughly  mixed.  Break  into  this  one  egg,  add  one-half 
a  level  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a  dash  of  pepper.  Beat 
until  light,  then  beat  in  three  tablespoonfuls  of  grated 
cheese.  Bake  in  muffin  tins  in  a  slow  oven  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes. 
Cheese  Straws. 

Take  the  scraps  of  pastry  left  from  making  pies,  roll  on 


CHEESE.  241 

a  cold  board  with  a  cold  rolling  pin  until  thin,  then  sprinkle 
well  with  grated  cheese,  and  lightly  with  salt.  Roll  up  by 
folding  over  and  over,  roll  thin  again,  cut  in  small  strips, 
lay  in  the  pan.  Sprinkle  lightly  with  salt  and  bountifully 
with  cheese,  and  bake  until  brown  and  crisp. 

Cheese  Strata, 

Butter  a  baking  dish,  and  in  the  bottom  place  thin  slices 
of  bread,  just  enough  to  cover  the  bottom.  Cover  the 
bread  with  a  white  sauce,  then  a  layer  of  grated  cheese 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  then  another  layer  of  bread, 
more  white  sauce,  and  more  cheese.  Continue  in  this  way 
until  the  desired  amount  is  in  the  dish,  having  cheese  on 
top.  Cover  the  top  with  seasoned  bread  crumbs  and  bake 
in  a  slow  oven  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  Serve  in  dish 
in  which  it  is  baked. 

Cheese  Fondu. 

One  egg  yolk,  beaten  light.  Add  to  this  one-fourth  cup 
of  white  sauce,  beating  constantly,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
fine  bread  crumbs,  one-fourth  cup  of  cheese,  grated  or 
cut  fine.  Fold  in  the  beaten  egg  white.  Pour  into  a  but- 
tered omelet  pan.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  Dust  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve  on  a  warm 
plate  while  hot. 

Cheese  Pudding. 

One  pint  milk,  two  eggs,  one  pint  of  bread  crumbs,  one 
and  one-half  cups  of  grated  cheese,  one-half  tablespoonful 
of  salt,  a  little  soda.  Put  the  milk  into  a  buttered  baking 
dish,  add  the  beaten  eggs,  the  crumbs,  the  cheese,  grated, 
salt,  and  soda,  which  have  been  mixed.  Bake  in  a  moder- 
ate oven  until  brown  on  top. 
Welsh  Rarebit. 

One  cup  of  cheese,  grated,  one-fourth  cup  of  sweet 
cream,  yolk  of  one  egg,  well  beaten,  one-half  tablespoonful 
of  butter,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-fourth  tea- 
spoonful  of  mustard  and  less  of  pepper.  Put  the  cheese 


242  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

into  a  double  boiler  with  one-half  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter. Put  the  butter  in  first.  When  the  cheese  is  melted, 
stir  in  the  egg  yolk  and  the  cream,  which  have  been 
mixed  together  and  seasoned  with  the  mustard,  salt  and 
pepper.  Stir  until  well  mixed,  but  do  not  allow  to  cur- 
dle. 

Cheese  Souffle — Home  Kule. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one  and  one-half  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour,  one-half  cup  of  milk,  one  cup  of 
grated  cheese,  three  eggs,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
cayenne  pepper,  a  dash.  Make  the  white  sauce,  and  pour 
over  the  beaten  egg  yolks.  Stir  the  cheese  into  the  white 
sauce,  while  hot.  When  cold,  add  whites,  beaten  stiff. 
Bake  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes  in  a  slow  oven.  Serve 
at  once. 

Cheese  Souffle — Class  Kule. 

Two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  butter,  three  level  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  flour,  one-quarter  cup  of  milk,  salt,  pepper,  and 
mustard  to  taste,  one  egg,  beaten  separately,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  cheese.  Make  the  sauce,  and  pour  boiling 
hot  over  the  beaten  yolk,  stir  in  the  seasoning,  then  the 
cheese.  When  cool,  pour  over  the  beaten  white,  and  care- 
fully fold  together,  and  cook  in  a  very  moderate  oven, 
same  as  a  light  omelet. 

Cheese  Toast. 

Put  one-half  cup  of  grated  cheese  in  a  saucepan  with 
one  cup  of  whole  milk  and  one  teaspoonful  of  butter.  Put 
over  the  fire,  and  when  the  cheese  begins  to  melt,  pour 
over  it  one  well-beaten  egg.  Put  again  over  the  fire  and 
cook,  until  it  thickens  like  a  steamed  custard.  Stir  con- 
stantly while  heating.  Season  with  one-fourth  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  mustard,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  a 
dash  of  pepper,  and  turn  over  nicely-toasted  bread.  Serve 
hot.  May  cook  over  hot  water,  or  set  the  saucepan  on  an 
asbestos  mat  and  cook  slowly,  stirring  constantly. 


CHEESE.  243 

Macaroni  or  Spaghetti  with  Cheese. 

Break  one-half  of  a  pound  package  of  either  paste  into 
two  quarts  of  boiling  salted  water,  and  boil  for  thirty 
minutes.  Drain  well,  and  blanch  in  cold  water.  Melt 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  add  the  paste,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  salt,  a  little  paprica,  one  cup  milk,  and  three- 
fourths  cup  of  grated  cheese.  Mix  well,  place  in  baking 
dish,  cover  with  grated  cheese,  put  buttered  bread  crumbs 
over  the  top,  and  bake  in  cool  oven  half  an  hour,  or 
longer,  if  wished  quite  brown. 

Rice  with  Cheese. 

Use  cold  boiled  rice.  Butter  a  baking  dish,  and  in  the- 
bottom  put  a  one-inch  layer  of  rice.  Cover  well  with 
white  sauce,  and  over  this  put  a  layer  of  grated  cheese. 
Add  more  rice,  more  white  sauce,  and  more  cheese,  until 
the  dish  is  as  full  as  desired,  having  a  layer  of  cheese  on 
the  top.  Over  this  sprinkle  seasoned  bread  crumbs,  and 
bake  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  in  a  moderate  oven.  Serve 
hot  from  the  dish  in  which  it  is  baked.  Rice  with  cheese 
may  be  baked  and  served  in  individual  escalop  shells. 

Toasted  Cheese  Wafers  or  Crackers. 

Buy  wafers  of  any  shape  desired,  or  crackers.  Sprinkle 
grated  cheese  thickly  over  the  top  of  the  wafers  or  crack- 
ers, lay  them  in  dripping  pans,  and  place  in  an  oven  hot 
enough  to  brown  a  cracker  in  four  or  five  minutes. 
Watch  them  closely,  and  remove  from  the  oven  when  just 
a  delicate  brown.  Serve  them  while  warm.  They  should 
be  crisp.  Serve  cheese  wafers  or  cheese  crackers  with 
the  salad  course. 

Cheese  Balls  No.  1. 

One  hard-boiled  egg,  cut  in  half.  Take  out  the  yolk, 
rub  fine,  and  mix  with  it  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of 
find  bread  crumbs,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  white  sauce. 
Season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  form  into  balls. 
Make -one-half  cup  of  white  sauce;  when  done,  add  two 


244  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

tablespoonfuls  of  cheese,  hold  over  a  slow  fire,  and  stir 
constantly  until  melted,  then  put  into  this  the  balls,  and 
heat.  When  hot,  put  the  balls  into  the  egg  white  cups, 
and  pour  over  them  the  sauce.  Prepare  in  same  way  the 
number  of  eggs  desired. 

Cheese  Balls  No.  2. 

Use  any  cold  cooked  rice, — that  cooked  in  milk  pre- 
ferred. Use  one  cup  of  rice  and  one-third  cup  of  grated 
cheese.  Mix  together,  stir  into  it  the  well-beaten  yolk  of 
one  egg,  season  with  salt  to  taste,  then  fold  in  the  egg 
white,  beaten  stiff.  Form  into  balls,  and  bake  in  a  slow 
oven  ten  minutes.  Serve  hot.  Cheese  balls  are  nice  as 
a  luncheon  dish. 

Cheese  Mushes. 

Cheese  may  be  used  in  all  mushes  made  of  wheat.  Stir 
the  grated  cheese  into  the  mush  after  it  is  cooked,  but 
just  before  removing  from  the  fire.  Cheese  requires  little 
cooking. 

References:      Chemistry  of   Cookery — Williams — pp.   185, 
138;    also  pp.  141-144;  Minn.  Bulletin  No.  54,  p.  77. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

BEVERAGES— COFFEE. 

The  United  States  imports  its  coffee  principally  from 
Central  America,  Mexico  and  Columbia.  The  following 
from  Bulletin  No.  13,  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture, Division  of  Chemistry,  gives  a  good  idea  of  the 


Coffee  Plant,   Flower  and  Bean  Pod. 

appearance  of  different  coffees.  Of  the  following  state- 
ments, those  in  quotation  marks  are  from  the  observations 
of  Lascelles : 

'  'West  India  coffee  is  for  the  most  part  even-sized, 
pale  and  yellowish,  firm  and  heavy,  with  firm  aroma,  los- 
ing little  in  weight  by  the  roasting  process. 


246  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

'  '.Brazil  coffee  is  larger,  less  solid,  greenish  or  white, 
usually  styled  by  the  brokers  "low"  or  "low  middling." 

<(  'Java  coffee  is  smaller,  slightly  elongated,  pale  in 
color,  deficient  in  aroma  and  essential  oil,  and  light/ 

'  'Ceylon  produces  coffee  of  all  descriptions,  but  ordi- 
nary plantation  coffees  are  even  colored,  slightly  canoe 
shaped,  strong  in  aroma  and  flavor,  of  considerable  grav- 
ity, and  admit  better  of  adulteration  than  most  other 
kinds/ 

"Mocha  is  usually  considered  the  best  coffee  of  com- 
merce. It  is  stated  that  East  India  coffees  are  sometimes 
shipped  to  Arabia,  and  exported  from  this  latter  country 
as  genuine  Mocha  coffee.  The  seeds  of  the  Mocha  are 
small  and  dark  yellow. 

"Java  coffee,  when  new,  is  a  pale  yellow,  and  is  then 
cheaper  than  when  old  and  brown.  This  color  is  partly 
a  result  of  the  method  of  curing,  in  addition  to  the  effects 
of  age.  The  high  price  of  Java  has  led  to  the  coloring  of 
cheaper  grades  with  mineral  pigments,  or  otherwise,  in 
imitation  of  the  favorite  coffee.  It  may  be  well  to  state 
that  this  practice  cannot  be  general,  since  no  foreign  color- 
ing matters  are  found  in  the  Javas  examined  in  the  course 
of  investigation  treated  of  in  this  work,  though  it  is  prob- 
able that  coffees  colored  by  exposure  to  a  high,  moist 
heat  may  have  escaped  detection." 

The  alkaloids  of  tea  and  coffee  are  about  the  same,  both 
chemically  and  physiologically.  That  in  coffee  is  known 
as  "caffeine/'  and  is  smaller  in  amount  than  "theine,"  the 
alkaloid  of  tea. 

Ground  coffee  is  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  use  of 
cereals,  beans,  peas,  and  acorns.  Chicory  is  probably 
the  most-used  adulterant.  One  test  for  chicory  is  to  put 
a  portion  of  ground  coffee  into  a  glass  of  cold  water.  A 
quick  sinking,  with  a  brown  coloring  of  the  water,  indi- 
cates the  presence  of  chicory.  This  is  not  an  infallible 
test,  for  it  is  sometimes  so  prepared  as  to  float.  Cereals 
will  sink,  but  with  slight,  if  any,  discoloration. 


BEVERAGES. 


247 


There  are  many  substitutes  for  coffee,  as  preparations 
of  chicory,  cereals,  caramel,  and  legumes. 

Coloring  is  resorted  to  in  whole  coffee,  as  in  tea,  to  give 
an  inferior  or  damaged  coffee  the  appearance  of  some- 
thing better. 

Coffee  which  is  two-thirds  Java  and  one-third  Mocha  is 
desirable.  Two  heaping  tablespoonfuls  to  each  pint  of 
water  makes  a  good  coffee.  The  above  coffee,  when 
genuine,  is  expensive,  and  there  are  other  mixtures  mak- 
ing mild  coffees  which  are  cheaper  and  very  desirable. 


Old  Time  Coffee  Pot  and  Hot-water  Pot. 

As  to  whether  coffee  made  with  a  cloth  strainer  allow- 
ing the  beverage  to  trickle  is  better  than  coffee  made  with 
boiling  water  and  cleared  with  egg  depends  upon  indi- 
vidual taste.  For  settling  coffee,  nothing  is  better  than 
egg  white.  The  yolk  should  not  be  used,  as  it  adds  little 
to  the  coffee,  and  is  good  for  salad  dressing. 

Coffee  Cleared  with  Egg— No.  1. 

Use  the  same  quantity  of  coffee  as  given  above,  but  not 
ground  quite  so  fine.  Put  the  coffee,  a  little  egg  white,  or 


248  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

egg  shell  (perfectly  clean),  into  a  bowl,  moisten  with  cold 
water,  and  mix  well.  Put  into  coffee  pot,  rinse  the  bowl, 
and  use  in  all  half  the  amount  of  boiling  water  necessary 
for  the  coffee.  Let  stand  on  stove  until  it  boils,  then  let 
simmer  about  five  minutes,  or  steep  like  tea,  add  the  re- 
mainder of  the  boiling  water,  pour  out  a  cup  of  the  coffee, 
pour  back  into  the  pot,  add  one  tablespoonful  of  cold 
water,  and  serve. 

Coffee  Cleared  with  Egg— No.  2. 

Beat  an  egg  and  mix  with  one  cup  of  water  in  a  bowl. 
With  the  egg  and  water  mix  five  tablespoonfuls  of  ground 
coffee.  Put  into  coffee  pot.  Pour  a  second  cup  of  cold 
water  into  the  bowl,  rinse,  and  pour  into  coffee  pot.  Set 
on  the  range,  and  when  it  reaches  the  boiling  point  add  the 
remaining  pint  of  cold  water.  Let  it  reach  the  boiling 
point  again,  and  pour  in  four  or  five  tablespoonfuls  of  cold 
water  to  settle.  Let  set  five  minutes,  and  serve. 

Cereal  Coffees. 

Make  according  to  directions  on  the  packages. 

Hygienic  Coffee. 

Bran  four  quarts.  Molasses  one  pint  (best  New  Or- 
leans). Rub  together  with  the  hands,  and  brown  nicely 
in  the  oven.  To  make  coffee,  use  twice  as  much  of  this 
as  of  genuine  coffee.  Make  in  same  manner  as  genuine 
coffee. 

Drip  Coffee. 

When  a  coffee  pot  with  a  cloth  bag  or  other  strainer 
is  used,  it  will  be  necessary  to  put  into  the  bag  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  ground  coffee  for  each  pint  of  water.  Pour 
the  water  around  the  outer  edge  of  the  coffee,  close  to  the 
sides  of  the  pot  first,  and  gradually  approach  the  center, 
so  that  the  dry  coffee  will  not  be  forced  against  the  sides 
of  the  strainer.  Coffee  should  be  ground  quite  fine,  but 
not  pulverized.  When  the  water  is  on,  cover,  allow  to 
trickle  through,  then  pour  on  another  third,  and  when  this 


BEVERAGES.  249 

has  passed  through,  put  on  the  remainder.  Pouring  on 
a  little  at  a  time  removes  the  strength  better,  and  if  it  is 
drawn  off  and  poured  over,  it  loses  flavor  when  passing 
through  the  air. 

COCOA.* 

There  are  several  small  trees  which  belong  to  the  genus 
Theobroma.  These  yield  the  seeds  from  which  cocoa  is 
made.  The  tree  known  as  "Theobroma  Cocoa"  yields  by 
far  the  greatest  quantity  and  the  most  valuable  of  that 
found  in  commerce.  The  cocoa  tree  does  not  grow  high. 
It  seldom  exceeds  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet,  but  grows 


Cocoa  Pods  and  Leaves. 

higher  in  the  native  forests  than  it  does  under  cultivation. 
This  tree,  like  the  fig,  has  flowers  and  fruit  in  different 
stages  of  growth  at  the  same  time.  The  ripe  bean-bearing 
pod  is  from  seven  to  ten  inches  in  diameter.  The  thick 
purplish  yellow  rind  is  hard  and  leathery.  The  surface 
is  marked  with  ten  very  distinct  longitudinal  elevations. 
Each  pod  contains  from  twenty  to  forty  seeds,  or  some- 
times more.  These  are  imbedded  in  the  delicately  pink 
acid  pulp  which  fills  the  interior  of  the  pod,  and  are  ar- 
ranged in  five  longitudinal  rows. 

•Encyclopedia  Brittanica. 


250 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


The  cocoa  tree  begins  to  bear  the  third  or  fourth  year, 
but  does  not  attain  its  full  vigor  until  the  eighth  year. 
Under  favorable  circumstances,  it  should  continue  prolific 
for  thirty  or  forty  years. 

The  cocoa  gatherers  cut  off  the  ripe  pods  only  by  the  use 
of  curved  knives  on  the  ends  of  long  poles.  The  fruit  is 
left  lying  in  heaps  on  the  ground  for  twenty-four  hours. 
The  pods  are  then  opened,  and  the  seeds  removed  and  car- 
ried in  baskets  to  the  sweating  sheds.  The  seeds  are 
freed  from  the  pulp,  and  the  acid  juice  drained  off.  Then 


Cocoa  Pot  and  Cups. 

they  are  placed  in  sweating  boxes,  where  they  are  allowed 
to  remain  for  some  time,  the  air  about  them  being  kept  at 
a  certain  temperature.  Sometimes  they  are  buried  in 
trenches.  The  process  of  sweating  is  then  called  "clay- 
ing." 

When  the  fermenting  has  proceeded  far  enough,  the 
seeds  are  dried  in  the  sun.  The  process  of  curing  gives 
beans  of  the  best  quality  a  warm,  reddish  tint.  Accord- 
ing to  Encyclopedia  Brittanica,  Venezuela  produces  the 


BEVERAGES.  251 

finest  beans  of  any  country.  This  product  is  known  in 
commerce  as  "Caracas  Cocoa."  The  best  quality  of  co- 
coa beans  resemble  plump  almonds  in  size  and  shape. 

The  husks  are  a  brick  red  color,  and  the  seed  is  easily 
broken,  and  falls  into  many  irregular  pieces  when  crushed. 
The  kernels  are  astringent  in  taste,  and  have  a  mild, 
agreeable  flavor.  Different  beans  vary  somewhat  both  in 
chemical  composition  and  character.  The  following  is 
given  by  Payen  as  the  average  composition : 

Fat  (cocoa  butter)   52  parts  in  100. 

Nitrogenous  compounds,  20  parts  in  100. 

Starch,  10  parts  in  100. 

Cellulose,  2  parts  in  100. 

Theobromine,  2  parts  in  100. 

Saline  substances,  4  parts  in  100. 

Water,  10  parts  in  100. 

Cocoa  red,  traces. 

Essential  oil,  traces. 

Theobromine  is  the  alkaloid  of  cocoa,  and  has  the  same 
physiological  value  as  the  theine  of  tea  and  coffee.  The 
fat  which  is  pressed  from  the  bean  is  white  and  solid  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  It  has  a  pleasant  taste  and  odor, 
and  is  remarkably  free  from  any  tendency  to  become  ran- 
cid. 

Cocoa  nibs  are  a  simple  and  usually  a  pure  form  of 
manufactured  cocoa.  They  are  simply  the  shelled 
roasted  bean,  broken  up.  When  the  nibs  are  ground  up 
into  a  coarse  uniform  paste,  they  form  what  is  known  as 
"cocoa  flakes."  This  can  be  much  more  easily  disinte- 
grated by  cooking  than  the  nibs  can.  In  making  extract 
of  cocoa,  a  portion  of  the  fat  is  removed  from  the  bean, 
and  it  is  then  reduced  to  an  extremely  fine  powder.  This 
forms  a  drink  more  agreeable  to  some  stomachs  than  the 
nibs  or  flakes  because  the  fat  is  not  present.  The  prepara- 
tions which  are  sold  in  the  powdered  forms  offer  a  fine  op- 
portunity for  adulteration.  According  to  Encyclopedia 
Brittanica,  most  of  these  preparations,  whether  sold  as 


252  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cocoa  or  chocolate,  are  mixtures  of  various  substances 
with  ground  nibs,  the  object  of  the  mixture  being  to  mask 
the  presence  of  the  cocoa  fat,  and  render  the  whole  readily 
miscible  with  boiling  water. 

The  ordinary  distinction  between  soluble  cocoa  and 
chocolate  is  that  the  cocoa  is  usually  sold  in  the  form  of 
a  powder,  the  chocolate  being  made  up  in  cakes,  which 
require  to  be  scraped  down,  boiled,  and  frothed  before 
being  ready  for  drinking. 

The  finely-ground  cocoa,  while  still  a  warm  and  pasty 
mass,  can  be  easily  adulterated  by  mixing  thoroughly  with 
it  arrow  root,  sugar,  etc.  Cocoa  shells  are  also  sometimes 
used  to  adulterate  cocoa. 

Bulletin  No.  13,  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Division  of  Chemistry,  says :  "There  is  probably 
no  more  abused  or  misleading  term  in  the  English  lan- 
guage than  the  term  'soluble  cocoa.'  No  cocoa  in  the  mar- 
ket contains  a  very  considerable  percentage  of  matter  solu- 
ble in  water  unless  the  material  so  dissolved  is  foreign 
soluble  material  that  has  been  added  during  the  process  of 
preparation.  The  term  seems  to  be  used  to  denote  a 
preparation  that  allows  none  of  the  insoluble  matter  to 
deposit  from  the  beverage  prepared  from  it.  This  purpose 
may  be  accomplished  in  two  ways, — the  material  may  be 
so  finely  divided  that  a  very  long  time  will  be  required  for 
its  deposition,  or  foreign  substances  (as  starch  or  sugar) 
may  be  added  to  render  the  liquid  of  so  high  a  specific 
gravity,  or  so  pasty,  that  the  insoluble  part  will  not  de- 
posit." 

The  best  sweet  chocolates  are  combinations  of  choco- 
late and  sugar  alone,  flavored  with  some  aromatic  sub- 
stance, usually  vanilla.  Into  the  cheaper  grades  some 
starchy  substance  often  enters.  The  nibs  for  chocolate  are 
brought  to  a  pasty  state  in  a  heated  mill,  and  the  sugar, 
with  whatever  else  is  added,  is  thus  thoroughly  incor- 
porated in  the  milling  process.  The  paste  is  further  mixed 
by  passing  several  times  between  horizontal  rollers.  It  is 


BEVERAGES.  253 

at  last  put  into  a  mold,  and  when  cooled  is  ready  for  wrap- 
ping. 

To  Make  Cocoa. 

One  and  one-half  level  teaspoonfuls  of  cocoa  for  each 
cup.  Place  the  cocoa  in  a  granite  cup,  and  stir  in  cold 
water  enough  to  make  a  thin  batter.  Place  on  the  fire, 
and  stir  until  it  thickens,  then  stir  into  it  enough  boiling 
water  and  milk  (one-half  milk  and  one-half  water)  to 
make  a  cup. 

Cocoa  Made  from  Nibs. 

Put  one  cupful  of  cocoa  shells  and  one  generous  table- 
spoonful  of  cocoa  nibs  into  two  quarts  of  boiling  water, 
and  let  simmer  for  four  hours.  Strain  and  serve  hot  with 
sugar  and  cream. 

TEAS. 

Teas  are  prepared  from  the  leaves  of  an  evergreen 
shrub  which  is  grown  very  extensively  in  China  and 
Japan.  Teas  are  divided  into  two  classes, — black  teas  and 
green  teas.  They  take  their  names  from  the  color  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  color  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which 
the  leaves  are. cured. 

"The  method  of  preparing  tea  differs  in  different  coun- 
tries in  which  this  commodity  is  grown.  In  India,  the 
manufacturing  processes  are  very  much  simplified,  and  the 
greatest  portion,  if  not  all  of  the  work  is  accomplished  by 
machinery;  thus  the  leaves  only  come  in  contact  with  the 
hands  of  the  laborers  in  picking." 

"The  method  of  manufacture  of  black  teas  in  Japan 
is  essentially  as  follows :  The  leaves  are  withered  by  ex- 
posure to  the  sun,  fire  being  used  only  in  cloudy  or  rainy 
weather.  An  hour's  sunning  is  usually  sufficient.  After 
withering,  the  leaves  are  rolled  and  twisted.  Black  teas 
are  usually  rolled  in  an  apparatus  made  especially  for  this 
purpose.  The  rolled  leaves  are  now  subjected  to  fermen- 
tation. This  is  a  very  important  operation,  since  its  in- 
fluence -on  the  quality  of  the  tea  is  considerable.  During 


254  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

this  operation  the  leaves  lose  their  disagreeable  raw  odor, 
and  acquire  a  fine  flavor  and  the  desired  tint.  One  method 
of  fermenting  the  leaves  is  to  make  them  up  into  small 
balls,  which  are  placed  in  shallow  bamboo  trays,  covered 
with  a  white  cloth,  and  set  aside  in  a  sunny  place.  A 
second  method  is  to  spread  the  leaves  in  a  tray,  press  them 
together,  cover,  and  place  them  in  a  sunny  place,  as  above. 
The  progress  of  fermentation  is  determined  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  leaves ;  the  full  time  required  being  about 
one  hour.  After  fermentation,  the  leaves  are  exposed  to 


Tea  Pot  and  Hot  Water  Pot  of  a  Century  Ago. 

the  sun  in  a  thin  layer.  During  this  sunning  the  green 
color  of  the  leaves  gradually  changes  to  black. 

"The  next  process  is  the  'firing.'  The  leaves  are  placed 
in  a  tray  over  a  charcoal  fire,  and  the  temperature  gradu- 
ally increased  as  the  moisture  is  driven  off.  The  leaves 
are  constantly  turned,  to  insure  uniform  drying.  The 
leaves  are  transferred  to  another  tray,  carefully  mixed, 
and  the  drying  repeated  until  they  are  dry.  The  final 
operation  consists  in  passing  the  leaves  through  sieves 
of  different  meshes,  and  packing.  The  tea  is  divided  into 
three  classes,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  leaves,  viz., 
Pekoe  (the  leaf  bud),  Souchong  and  Bohea. 

"As  already  stated,  these  manipulations  are  very  much 


BEVERAGES.  255 

simplified  in  India.  According  to  Col.  Money,  the  opera- 
tions practiced  in  the  older  tea  countries  have  been  reduced 
from  twelve  to  five. 

"Teas  are  adulterated  in  various  ways.  A  process 
known  as  facing  is  frequently  resorted  to,  and  is  a  coloring 
of  the  leaves.  Exhausted  leaves  are  sometimes  mixed 
with  tea.  Foreign  leaves  are  sometimes  added.  Gunpow- 
der and  other  fine  teas  are  especially  adapted  to  adultera- 
tion by  the  use  of  fragments  of  foreign  leaves.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  under  the  laws  now  in  force  the  adulteration 
of  teas  is  practiced  very  much  less  than  formerly."* 

Green  teas  are  prepared  by  first  steaming,  then  roll- 
ing, slowly  drying,  sorting  by  sieves,  then  facing.   Japan- 
ese teas  are  prepared  under  better  sanitary  conditions  than 
Chinese  teas. 
To  Make  Tea. 

To  make  green  tea,  heat  the  teapot  with  boiling  water. 
Pour  the  water  out,  put  the  tea  in  (one  teaspoonful  to 
each  cup)  and  pour  on  enough  fresh-boiled  water  to  thor- 
oughly saturate  it.  Set  the  pot  back  on  the  stove  where 
it  will  keep  hot,  but  not  boil,  and  let  the  tea  steep  from 
five  to  ten  minutes,  then  pour  on  the  quantity  of  hot 
water  needed,  and  serve;  or  pour  water  all  on  at  once, 
and  let  steep. 

To  make  black  or  Oolong  tea,  use  two  teaspoonful  s 
to  each  pint  of  water,  and  proceed  same  as  in  making  green 
tea. 

Ceylon  or  English  breakfast  teas  are  better  steeped  at 
table,  as  they  deteriorate  in  flavor  by  standing.  Only 
freshly-boiled  water  should  be  used  in  making  tea,  as  the 
gases  present  in  water  give  a  pleasant  odor,  and  boiling 
drives  them  off. 

*U.  S.  Dept.  of  Ag-r. ,  Division  of  Chemistry,  Bui.  13,  pt.  7. 
References:  Chambers'  Enc.  p.  114;  Enc.  Brit,  "Tea," 
"Coffee;"  Johnston's  Enc.,  "Tea,"  "Coffee,"  and  "Chocolate," 
pp.  50,  376,  377;  Buckeye  Cook  Book,  pp.  204-207;  Parloa's 
Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  818,  819,  822-824;  Art  of  Cookery — 
Ewing — pp.  77,  78;  Art  of  Cooking  for  Invalids — Jack — pp. 
151,  152. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING. 

If  we  will  prepare  tempting  soups  of  the  scraps  of  meat, 
bones,  etc.,  we  will  aid  in  preventing  the  habit  of  over-eat- 
ing, to  which  our  progress  in  civilization  has  led  us. 
Formerly  very  simple  diet  was  found  satisfactory,  but  now 
the  four  corners  of  the  earth  are  ransacked  to  supply  us 


Soup  Tureen,  Ladle  and  Coups. 

with  the  things  which  will  most  tempt  our  appetites. 
Soup  may  aid  in  overcoming  the  habit  of  rapid  eating, 
if  not  of  overeating,  for,  if  taken  at  the  beginning  of  the 
meal,  it  is  very  satisfying.  Soup  is  ready  to  at  once  be 
absorbed  by  the  vessels  of  the  stomach,  and  therefore  re- 
lieves the  feeling  of  hunger,  and  hence  one  becomes  in- 
clined to  eat  more  leisurely. 

To  be  successful  in  soup  making,  the  cook  must  know 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  257 

the  taste  of  a  good  soup,  and  make  that  the  guide  in 
strength,  flavor,  and  seasoning.  Use  up  all  the  scraps 
of  meat,  either  cooked  or  raw,  but  cook  them  separately, 
that  is,  cook  the  raw  meat  a  little  before  putting  the  cooked 
meat  into  the  kettle.  Meat  broths  cooked  in  this  way 
should  not  be  flavored,  and  should  be  seasoned  with  salt 
only.  They  are  conveniently  used  in  gravies  and  purees 
when  there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  to  form  a  soup  for 
a  meal,  and,  if  flavored,  they  would  be  spoiled  for  this 
purpose. 

A  great  many  soups  are  made  without  the  previous 
preparation  of  a  distinct  stock;  but  stock  is  the  base  of 
many  soups,  and  its  manner  of  compounding  is  essential 
to  a  perfect  understanding  of  soup  making.  ^»,  -  ->^ 

Stock  is  the  juices  and  the  soluble  parts  of  meat,  bone, 
etc.,  held  in  the  water  in  which  they  have  been  drawn  out 
by  proper  cooking.  This  liquid  has,  when  cold,  a  pleas- 
ant, meat-like  flavor,  and  a  jelly-like  consistency,  owing  to 
the  harmonious  combination  of  the  materials  of  which  it 
is  composed,  and  the  gelatine  which  has  been  drawn  from 
the  cartilagenous  portions.  The  lean  portions  alone  will 
not  form  a  jelly.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  round  of  beef 
only  is  used  in  making  bouillon  to  be  served  cold.  The 
stock  will  have  a  better  flavor  if  the  bones  and  meat  are 
in  small  pieces  when  put  to  cook,  as  the  water  will  thus 
remove  more  of  the  soluble  parts. 

To  Make  Soup  Stock. 

Select  a  shin  or  shank  of  beef  containing  as  much  lean 
meat  as  bone,  and,  to  get  the  best  results,  cut  the  meat  into 
small  pieces,  and  have  the  bone  sawed  in  short  lengths, 
and  put  to  cook  in  cold  water.  This  will  allow  the  water 
to  draw  more  flavor  from  both  meat  and  bone.  Use  with 
this  any  trimmings  or  tough  pieces  of  raw  meat,  provided 
it  is  beef.  Put  the  meat  into  the  kettle  and  pour  in  cold 
water  to  cover  one  inch  deep.  Add  about  half  the  amount 

9 


258  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

of  salt  it  will  probably  need,  let  heat  up  gently,  and  when 
hot,  simmer  for  several  hours.  After  it  has  cooked  for 
four  hours,  put  into  a  spider,  with  some  hot  ham  or  bacon 
fat,  a  pint  of  onions,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  white  turnips 
mixed  in  equal  parts,  and  cook  until  brown.  Put  into  the 
soup  kettle,  rinse  the  spider,  and  pour  the  contents  into 
the  kettle,  and  let  simmer  half  an  hour.  Pour  the  con- 
tents of  the  kettle  into  a  colander.  When  the  stock  has 
all  drained  out,  set  aside  to  cool.  Leave  the  grease  over 
the  top  unless  wishing  to  use  the  soup  right  away,  be- 
cause the  fat  causes  it  to  keep  better.  Remove  the  cold 
fat  in  a  lump.  If  you  have  not  time  to  let  cool,  pour  a 
little  cold  water  into  the  hot  soup  to  aid  in  bringing  the 
fat  at  once  to  the  top,  dip  off  what  you  can,  and  remove 
the  rest  with  paper,  placing  white  or  unglazed  paper,  a 
piece  at  a  time,  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  The  liquid 
should  be  of  an  amber  color,  and  will  be  if  the  vegetables 
are  browned  enough.  Always  save  the  rinsings  from  the 
roasting  pans  for  gravies. 

Cook  peppercorns  with  meat,  allowing  three  pepper- 
corns to  a  quart  of  water  in  making  soup  stock  (if  pepper 
is  desired)  as  this  gives  the  flavor  of  pepper  without  the 
cloudy  appearance  necessary  with  ground  pepper.  It 
is  wise  to  place  an  asbestos  mat  under  the  soup  kettle. 
It  is  much  better  to  have  soup  stock  cook  slowly,  and  the 
asbestos  mat  aids  in  preventing  too  great  heat,  after  the 
contents  are  all  thoroughly  heated  through,  in  the  kettle. 

To  Color  Soup  Stock. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  an  amber  color  may  be 
imparted  to  soup.  The  following  method  is  perhaps  most 
satisfactory  from  all  standpoints :  Place  the  soup  meat  in 
a  hot  spider,  or  iron  kettle,  containing  a  little  fat,  and  stir 
about  until  it  browns,  but  let  no  particle  of  it  burn.  When 
it  is  nicely  browned,  put  it  into  the  soup  kettle,  cover  with 
cold  water,  as  for  soup  making,  rinse  the  vessel  in  which 
it  was  cooked,  and  add  the  water  used  to  the  kettle. 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  25* 

Another  excellent  way  to  color  soup  stock  is  to  use  the 
bits  of  roast  and  bones  from  steak  left  by  the  carver  on 
the  meat  platter.  Add  the  rinsing  from  roasting  pans  and 
meat  spiders,  when  not  needed  for  gravy,  and  little  extra, 
coloring  will  be  necessary. 

A  third  way  to  color  the  stock  is  by  browning  the  veg- 
etables to  be  used  before  putting  them  to  cook  for  the 
soup,  and  add  the  water  in  which  they  were  cooked  to 
the  stock. 

A  fourth  method  is  to  make  a  meat  caramel  by  evapo- 
rating meat  broth  to  a  syrupy  consistency,  and  then  al- 
low it  to  brown,  but  not  burn.  This  may  be  kept  for  a 
short  time  if  put  into  a  sterilized  glass  jar,  and  sealed 
while  hot. 

Meat  extract  for  coloring  soup  may  be  bought,  but  the 
flavor  is  not  so  fine  as  the  home-made  caramel.  Both  the 
boughten  extract  and  that  made  at  home  must  be  kept 
closely  sealed. 

A  fifth  and  less  desirable  method  is  to  use  a  sugar 
caramel  made  in  the  same  way  as  a  meat  caramel,  except 
that  a  syrup  made  from  sugar  and  water  is  used  as  a. 
basis. 
Reasons  for  Using  Cold  Water  in  Making  Soup  Stock. 

When  a  piece  of  meat  is  immersed  in  boiling  water,  a 
coating  of  coagulated  albumen  is  formed  on  the  outside. 
This  largely  prevents  the  escape  of  the  meat  juices.  Meat 
surrounded  by  cold  water  remains  soft,  and  its  juices  are- 
drawn  out  gradually  as  the  water  heats. 

Reasons  for  Cooking  Vegetables  in  Water,  Rather  than  in, 
the  Soup. 

Cooking  vegetables  in  the  soup  usually  gives  the  soup- 
a  flavor  which  is  less  delicate  than  when  the  vegetables 
are  cooked  in  water.     The  soup  stock  is  apt  to  be  over- 
cpoked,  if  yegetables  are  added  to  it  to  be  cooked. 
What  Meats  should  be  Cooked  Together  in  Soup  Stock. 

Chicken  and  veal  may  be  used  together,  and  either  may 
be  used  with  beef,  but  mutton,  pork,  and  turkey  should 


260  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

each  be  cooked  alone,  and  the  broths  used  alone,  except  in 
mixed  soups,  where  their  flavors  are  toned  down  or  dis- 
guised by  the  use  of  various  vegetables  and  other  fla- 
vorings. A  very  little  ham  or  bacon  is  sometimes  used  in 
other  meat  stocks,  but  not  enough  so  that  the  flavor  is  no- 
ticeable. 

Vegetables  Used  for  Flavoring  Different  Soup  Stocks. 

In  making  chicken  broth,  cook  a  stalk  of  celery,  a  blade 
of  mace,  or  a  bit  of  onion  with  each  fowl.  For  veal,  use 
the  same  materials,  but  less  of  them. 

In  making  beef  stock,  use  onions,  carrots,  turnips,  and 
celery.  Cabbage  may  be  used,  also,  but  it  is  apt  to  so 
assert  itself  as  to  obscure  largely  all  other  flavors. 
'  In  a  mixed  broth,  many  vegetables  and  herbs  may  be 
used,  but  all  must  be  added  in  such  quantities  as  to  pre- 
serve harmony,  and  produce  a  pleasant  flavor.  None  of 
the  flavoring  materials  should  be  in  a  powdered  form,  as 
they  impair  the  beauty  of  the  liquids.  Some  of  the  herbs 
commonly  used  in  soup  are  described  in  the  article  on 
condiments  and  spices.  Those  who  wish  highly-flavored 
soups  can  buy  the  herbs  and  spices  already  mixed,  and 
add  the  amount  desired  half  an  hour  before  straining  the 
Stock. 

'Meat  broths  are  usually  just  plain  meat  stock  seasoned 
with  salt  and  pepper.  A  bit  of  parsley  may  be  added  to 
lamb  or  mutton  broth.' 

What  to  Serve  in  Soups. 

Bouillon  should  be  well  colored,  strong,  clear,  and  serv- 
ed with  nothing  in  it.  Clear  soup,  or  consomme,  should  be 
clear,  amber  colored,  of  medium  strength,  and  flavored 
with  herbs  and  vegetables.  It  may  have  something  served 
in  it,  but  all  things  which  cloud  it,  or  interfere  with  its 
clearness  in  any  way,  should  be  excluded. 

Beef  broth  may  have  some  cereal,  as  barley,  served 
in  it. 


SOUPS  AND   SOUP  MAKING.  261 

Many  kinds  of  paste,  as  the  long,  slender  strips  of  vermi- 
celli, the  rings  of  macaroni  and  the  many  fanciful  forms 
of  paste  to  be  found  on  the  market,  as  well  as  noodles,  may 
also  be  used  in  a  beef  soup.  Chicken  broth  may  have 
rice,  noodles,  or  some  of  the  various  forms  of  paste 
served  in  it.  Mutton  or  lamb  broth  is  best  with  parsley, 
rice  or  barley  served  in  it.  Veal  broth  admits  of  about  the 
same  things  as  chicken  broth.  Bean  and  tomato  soup  are 
especially  nice  with  croutons. 

All  cereals,  vegetables,  and  pastes  are  cooked  in  water 
before  being  added  to  the  soups.  -Mixed  vegetable  soups 
admit  all  vegetables  which  taste  well  together.  These 
vegetables  are  simply  chopped,  or  are  cut  in  fancy  shapes, 
as  desired. 

Soup  sticks,  bread  fingers,  crisped  crackers,  or  toast 
strips  may  be  served  with  soup. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  scald  soup  in  order  to  preserve 
it  in  warm  weather,  be  sure  that  it  boils.  Merely  heating 
without  boiling  does  no  good. 

Croutons. 

Cut  slices  of  stale  bread,  buttered,  into  squares  (small), 
and  brown  in  the  oven.  Serve  with  pea  soup,  bean  soup, 
or  tomato  soup.  Croutons  may  be  fried  in  deep  fat,  but 
baking  in  the  oven  is  preferable. 

Noodles  for  Soup. 

Break  an  egg  into  a  bowl,  add  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  salt,  and  stir  in  a  generous  half  cup  of  flour.  Knead 
well.  Roll  as  thin  as  possible,  let  lie  on  the  molding 
board  until  it  can  be  rolled  like  jelly  cake  without  the 
paste  sticking  together.  When  rolled,  cut  off  in  strips 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide,  shake  out.  Put  two  quarts 
or  plenty  of  water  over  the  fire  in  a  kettle  or  saucepan,  and 
add  one  tablespoonful  of  salt  to  two  quarts  of  water. 
When  boiling,  put  in  the  noodles,  and  cook  rapidly  three- 
fourths  of  an  hour.  Serve  in  noodle  broth,  chicken  or 
b'roth. 


262  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Thickening  for  Soup. 

Most  thickened  soups  have  about  the  consistency  of 
cream.  Some  authorities  direct  that  purees  be  made 
thicker,  but  since  they  are  in  the  category  of  soups,  there 
seems  no  good  reason  for  doing  so. 

When  butter  and  flour  are  used  for  thickening,  save  out 
half  the  soup  stock,  if  it  is  cold,  put  the  butter  and  flour 
in  a  saucepan,  and,  when  melted,  pour  the  soup  stock  on 
them,  stir  until  it  boils,  and  then  add  to  the  rest  of  the 
ingredients.  If  it  is  hot,  have  it  very  strong,  and  use  a 
cup  of  water  with  the  thickening,  or  have  it  hot,  of  the 
right  strength,  and  mix  the  butter  and  flour  together 
perfectly,  put  on  the  end  of  a  wooden  spoon,  put  into 
the  liquid,  and  stir  until  the  mixture  melts  slowly  from 
the  spoon,  and  thickens  the  soup  as  desired.  When  corn- 
starch  or  arrowroot  is  used,  mix  smoothly  with  a  little 
water  in  a  saucepan,  then  pour  on  a  little  hot  soup,  pour- 
ing slowly  and  stirring  rapidly  to  prevent  lumping. 
When  well  mixed,  add  to  the  contents  of  the  kettle,  and 
stir  until  smooth  and  well  cooked. 

The  amount  of  thickening  given  in  the  following  for- 
mulae is  simply  enough  to  give  body  to  the  soup,  and 
prevent  the  vegetables  settling.  Those  desiring  a  thick 
puree  or  cream  must  use  twice  the  given  amount  of  thick- 
ening material.  Split  peas  and  cooked  tomatoes  may  be 
used  without  straining,  and  simply  form  soups,  but  both 
are  nicer  when  strained  and  made  into  purees.  Most  veg- 
etables need  straining  to  remove  the  woody  portion,  as 
the  covering  of  beans  and  the  woody,  stringy  portions  of 
asparagus  and  celery. 

CLASSES  OF  SOUPS. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  soup,  but  few  distinct 
classes.  A  plain  soup  is  a  simple  stock  of  either  meat  or 
vegetable  origin.  It  may  contain  one  kind  of  meat  or 
vegetable,  or  more  than  one  kind ;  but  the  distinguishing 
feature  is  the  absence  of  elaboration.  No  attempt  is  made 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  263 

at  display.  It  is  simply  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper. 
Beef  soup  is  an  example.  A  clear  soup  has  a  meat-stock 
basis,  either  simple  or  compound.  Such  a  soup  must  be 
perfectly  clear,  colored  a  beautiful  amber,  and  nicely 
flavored  with  vegetables.  Herbs  are  added  if  desired. 
Example,  chicken  consomme.  A  vegetable  soup  may 
have  a  mixture  of  various  vegetables  cooked  in  water  and 
seasoned,  or  meat  broth  may  be  added  also.  When  a 
stock  is  made  simply  by  cooking  vegetables  in  water  and 
straining  it  is  called  a  vegetable  stock.  Example,  toma- 
to soup.  A  cream  soup  has  milk  as  the  distinguishing 
characteristic,  and  may  be  made  from  a  meat 'stock,  as 
cream  of  chicken,  or  from  a  vegetable  stock,  as  cream  of 
celery.  Mixed  soups  form  a  sixth  and  last  distinct  class 
of  soups.  These  are  made  by  uniting  two  or  more  of  the 
others,  in  proper  proportion.  . 

Emergency  Beef  Tea. 

Cut  round  steak  into  small  pieces,  free  from  fat,  put 
into  a  saucepan,  granite  or  porcelain,  cover  with  cold 
water  about  one  inch,  and  add  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of 
salt  to  each  cup  of  water.  Heat  gradually  to  nearly  the 
boiling  point  .and  let  simmer  twenty  minutes,  press  with 
a  spoon  to  free  the  juice,  strain  and  serve. 

Beef  Tea. 

Prepare  the  beef  as  for  Emergency  Beef  Tea,  put  in  a 
glass  fruit  jar,  add  one-half  cup  of  cold  water  to  each 
pound  of  meat,  put  the  cover  loosely  on  the  jar  and  set 
in  a  kettle  of  cold  water  on  a  support.  Heat  gradually 
to  the  boiling  point,  and  let  simmer  two  or  three  hours, 
then  strain,  pressing  out  as  much  juice  as  possible,  and 
serve. 

Beef  Essence. 

Prepare  the  steak  as  for  beef  tea,  and  put  in  a  jar  with- 
out any  water;  put  the  jar  in  a  kettle  of  cold  water,  and 
finish  the  same  as  beef  tea. 


264  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Beef  Juice. 

Sear  a  piece  of  round  steak  on  both  sides,  and  heat  it 
enough  so  that  the  juices  may  be  extracted  by  squeezing 
with  a  lemon  squeezer  or  a  meat  press.  (Cut  in  small 
pieces  before  squeezing.)  Put  the  juice  into  a  warm 
cup,  and  if  still  too  cool  to  serve,  set  the  cup  in  water  be- 
low 180°  F.  If  the  juice  is  heated  above  180°  R,  the 
albumen  will  coagulate.  If  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
juice  absolutely  free  from  any  possibility  of  a  smoky 
taste,  put  the  meat  in  a  granite  basin,  and  heat  over  water 
until  each  outer  surface  is  white,  then  cut  in  small  pieces, 
and  squeeze. 

Beef  Broth  with  Tomato — Home  Rule. 

Two  cups  of  beef  broth,  one  generous  half  cup  of 
strained  tomato.  Season  with  one-fourth  teaspoonful 
of  salt  and  a  dash  of  pepper. 

Beef  Broth  with  Tomato — Class  Rule. 

One-half  cup  of  broth,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  tomato. 
Salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

To  Make  Lamb  or  Mutton  Broth. 

Choose  the  neck,  and  be  sure  that  it  is  perfectly 
cleansed.  Remove  the  outer  thin  skin.  To  have  the  best 
results,  have  the  meat  cut  into  two-inch  lengths.  Put  into 
the  kettle,  press  down  well,  and  cover  to  the  depth  of  one 
inch  with  cold  water.  Cook  slowly  four  or  five  hours. 
Strain  through  a  colander,  and  allow  the  fat  to  remain 
over  the  top  until  the  broth  is  needed.  Remove  all  the 
fat  before  using.  A  little  cold  water  poured  into  the  hot 
soup  will  help  make  the  fat  rise  to  the  top.  Parsley,  rice 
or  barley  may  be  appropriately  served  in  lamb  or  mutton 
broth. 
To  Make  Turkey  Broth. 

Put  the  bones,  skins,  and  refuse  bits  of  turkey  in  a 
saucepan  with  some  trimmings  of  celery.  Add  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  and  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  bones, 
simmer  for  three  hours,  strain,  and  remove  the  grease. 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  265 

Tomatoes  or  rice  are  appropriate  with  turkey  broth.  Tur- 
key broth  is  much  less  delicate  than  chicken,  but  is  en- 
joyed by  some. 

Noodle   Broth. 

One  pint  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour,  and  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  butter  put  together  as  for  a  white  sauce. 
Add  one  level  teaspoonful  of  salt,  a  dash  of  pepper,  and  a 
drop  of  onion  juice.  To  this  add  one-half  cup  of  cooked 
noodles.  Bring  to  the  boiling  point  and  serve. 

CLEAR    SOUP,    OR    CONSOMME. 

To  clear  the  soup,  use  the  whites  of  the  eggs  only.  To 
every  two  pints  of  stock  allow  one  large  egg  white.  The 
entire  egg  may  be  used,  but  the  white  only  gives  a  better 
flavor  and  the  yolk  can  be  easily  used  in  salad  dressing. 
Wash  the  shell  before  breaking,  and  put  it  in  also.  Mix 
the  egg  in  the  cold  stock,  and  beat  well  together.  Place 
over  the  fire  and  stir  constantly  until  it  boils,  then  stop 
stirring,  and  let  boil  until  a  perfectly  clear  liquid  appears 
below  the  scum,  then  strain  through  a  cloth.  If  the  soup 
does  not  boil  long  enough,  it  will  be  cloudy  after  strain- 
ing. 

The  fat  must  be  all  removed  from  the  top  of  any  soup 
before  serving.  A  clear  soup  is  appropriately  served 
without  anything  in  it,  or  it  may  have  anything  which  will 
harmonize  with  the  broth,  and  not  cloud  the  soup.  Clear 
soup  is  often  called  "consomme."  A  consomme  made  of 
beef  broth  alone  may  have  added  to  it  pearl  barley  well 
cooked,  drained,  and  rinsed.  One  of  the  numerous 
pastes,  as  vermicelli,  or  macaroni,  cut  into  very  short  pieces 
or  rings,  Italian  paste  or  letters,  spaghetti,  etc.  A  good 
rule  is,  add  nothing  which  will  cloud  the  soup. 

Julienne  Soup. 

This  is  simply  a  clear  soup  to  which  vegetables  cut  in 
fancy  shapes  are  added.  The  vegetables  may  be  cut  in 
long,  slender,  match-like  pieces.  Use  well-cooked  and 


266 


HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 


rinsed  green  peas  on  account  of  the  color,  but  most  vege- 
tables should  be  either  long,  or  some  fancy  shape. 

Chicken  Consomme. 

This  stock  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  directed  for  clear 
soup,  except  to  each  fowl  use  about  one  pound  of  lean 
beef,  and  simply  put  the  breast  in  on  top  long  enough 
to  cook  it,  and  take  it  out,  letting  the  beef  fill  its  place 
in  making  the  stock.  Cook  with  the  chicken  two  small 
stalks  of  celery.  This  is  specially  nice  with  rice  or  noo- 
dles, or  any  of  the  before-mentioned  pastes.  There  are 
many  varieties  of  soup  made  from  clear  stock,  and  each 


Bouillon  Cup. 

takes  its  name  from  the  material  served  in  it.  When 
served  without  any  additions,  they  are  called  "amber 
soup,"  "plain  consomme,"  etc. 

Mullagatawny  Soup. 

To  a  chicken  broth  made  as  above,  but  not  cleared,  add 
bits  of  chicken  cut  in  small  cubes,  season,  and  just  before 
serving  add  a  teaspoonful  of  curry  powder,  or  as  much  as 
is  needed  to  season  it  very  highly.  May  leave  out  the 
diced  chicken,  and  use  rice  instead. 

When  flavoring  other  soups,  never  use  powdered  spices, 
as  they  form  a  sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the  plate,  and 
spoil  the  appearance.  WThole  cloves  and  other  spices 


SOUPS   AND   SOUP   MAKING.  267 

should  be  stuck  into  the  vegetables  while  boiling.  Whole 
pepper  is  superior  to  ground,  but  it  requires  several  hours 
boiling. 

Bouillon. 

Make  and  clear  the  stock  the  same  as  for  clear  soup, 
but  have  the  stock  stronger  and  darker  than  for  clear 
soup,  and  use  lean  meat  without  bone  in  making  the 
stock.  Serve  bouillon  in  cups,  and  always  plain.  Bouil- 
lon is  generally  made  of  best  round.  'When  bouillon  is 
to  be  served  cold,  this  is  necessary  to  prevent  its  jellying, 
but  when  served  hot,  it  is  just  as  well  to  use  bone  with 
the  meat,  the  only  necessity  being  to  have  it  strong,  dark, 
and  clear,  with  a  fine  flavor. 

MIXED  SOUPS. 

Soups  made-  from  two  or  more  different  broths  wisely 
combined  and  flavored  delicately  with  vegetables  and 
other  suitable  materials  are  among  our  most  palatable 
dishes,  but,  like  other  good  things,  they  require  extra 
skill  in  their  preparation.  In  a  mixture  of  veal  and  chick- 
en broth,  use  such  vegetables  for  flavoring  as  celery, 
onions,  and  parsley.  For  a  mixture  of  beef,  mutton,  etc., 
use  cloves,  bay  leaf,  sweet  marjoram,  a  little  tomato  or 
catsup.  Sometimes  butter  and  flour  browned  together 
harmonize  with  the  other  ingredients  of  the  mixture. 
Never  mix  mutton  and  beef  unless  you  use  vegetables  to 
disguise  the  mutton  flavor.  Do  not  use  turkey  or  ham 
broth,  except  in  vegetable  soups,  and  then  very  little. 

Stock  for  Aspic  Jelly. 

One  pound  of  beef  for  the  flavor,  one  knuckle  of  veal 
to  furnish  the  gelatine,  one-eighth  pound  of  bacon,  one- 
fourth  of  a  small  turnip,  one-fourth  of  a  parsnip,  three 
cloves,  six  peppercorns,  one-half  a  small  onion,  one-half 
carrot,  one  celery  root,  one  parsley  root,  one  blade  of 
mace,  -three  allspice  berries,  one  teaspoonful  of  Worces- 


268  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

tershire  sauce,  one  teaspoonful  of  chopped  lemon  rind, 
one-half  of  a  bay  leaf,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  water  to 
cover  the  meat.  Cook  the  bacon  in  the  kettle,  then  brown 
the  onions  in  the  bacon  fat.  Add  the  beef  in  small  pieces, 
and  brown  it  also.  Put  the  cold  water  over  the  meat,  let 
reach  the  boiling  point,  then  cook  slowly  four  hours,  put 
the  vegetables  in,  and  simmer  another  hour.  Any  meat 
and  bones  may  be  used  in  making  stock. for  aspic  jelly, 
but  unless  there  are  bones  and  gristle  enough  to  form 
gelatine  for  it,  gelatine  must  be  put  into  it,  but  the  bones 
give  a  better  flavor  than  added  gelatine. 

Aspic  jelly  should  be  highly  seasoned,  be  clear  and 
sparkling,  and  of  an  amber  color.  It  is  used  for  garnish- 
ing fowl,  game,  etc.  It  is  also  used  for  molding  boned 
birds  and  fowls,  boned  meats,  etc.  To  mold  meats  in 
aspic  jelly,  wet  the  mold,  pour  in  jelly  half  an  inch  deep, 
and  let  harden,  then  put  the  meat  in  place,  and  pour  in 
the  rest.  If  the  bottom  and  sides  are  decorated  with 
some  design,  put  in  a  little  jelly  and  let  harden,  so  the 
article  will  not  sink,  but  do  not  allow  the  jelly  to  become 
perfectly  hard  before  more  is  carefully  added. 

Aspic  jelly  may  be  cooled  in  a  ring  mold,  and  have 
chicken  salad  served  in  it.  It  is  used  at  fine  .dinners  and 
luncheons. 

Noodle  Soup. 

If  the  broths  on  hand  are  from  roast  chicken  and  veal, 
thicken  with  butter  and  flour,  using  one  tablespoonful  of 
each  to  a  pint  of  liquid  (proceeding  as  directed  for  white 
sauce  on  page  53),  let  boil  up  well,  and  add  any  bits  of 
cold  macaroni  cut  in  short  pieces,  or  make  noodles  as  on 
page  260. 

Vegetable  Soups. 

When  vegetables  are  used  in  soup,  they  should  be  first 
cooked  in  water,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  put  those 
vegetables  requiring  most  cooking  into  the  kettle  first. 
Use  as  little  water  as  practicable,  and  limit  the  simmering 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  269 

of  each  kind  to  the  time  actually  necessary  to  cook  it 
tender. 

String  beans  require  from  one  to  two  hours.  Carrots 
in  large  pieces  require  from  one  to  two  hours.  Green 
peas  three-fourths  of  an  hour  to  one  hour.  Onions  about 
one  hour.  The  soup  has  a  better  flavor  if  the  vegetables 
are  browned  in  a  little  butter  before  adding  to  the  soup. 
Use  in  the  soup  the  water  in  which  the  vegetables  are 
cooked. 

To  each  quart  of  soup  use  one-half  cup  of  beans,  one- 
half  cup  of  carrots,  one-half  cup  of  peas,  and  one-fourth 
cup  of  onions,  and  the  same  of  tomato  may  be  used.  May 
use  a  tablespoonful  of  white  turnip,  if  liked. 

Mix  together  the  bits  of  broth  of  various  kinds,  cook 
the  above  vegetables  in  the  same  saucepan,  adding  the 
different  vegetables  according  to  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired for  cooking  them.  When  done,  add  them  to  the 
soup,  season,  and  serve.  If  liked  highly  flavored,  mix  the 
broths,  and  steep  a  bouquet  of  herbs,  cloves,  and  pepper- 
corns in  it,  using  two  cloves  and  four  peppers  to  a  quart. 
Cabbage  may  be  used  in  vegetable  soup,  but  it  is  so  highly 
flavored  that  it  asserts  itself  over  the  others  too  much  for 
the  best  results. 

Okra  Soup — For  Home  Work. 

One  quart  of  chicken  broth,  one  cup  of  okra  canned  or 
fresh  (strained),  one-fourth  cup  of  lima  beans,  one-fourth 
cup  of  sweet  corn,  one-fourth  cup  of  cooked  and  strained 
tomato.  For  thickening  use  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
and  one  of  butter.  Save  out  one  cup  of  chicken  broth, 
and  use  it  in  making  the  thickening  as  directed  for  thick- 
ening soups. 

Okra  Soup— For  Class  Work. 

One  cup  of  chicken  broth,  one-fourth  cup  of  canned 
or  fresh  okra,  one  tablespoonful  of  lima  beans,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  sweet  corn,  one  tablespoonful  of  tomatoes. 


270  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Thicken  with  one  teaspoonful  each  of  flour  and  butter. 
Season  and  serve. 

Save-All  Soup. 

In  a  save-all  soup,  mix  the  different  broths  you  have 
together.  For  each  quart  of  broth  fry  in  butter  until 
brown  one-half  cup  of  onions  and  carrots  mixed  in  equal 
parts,  put  these  into  the  stock,  and  add  one-half  cup  of 
celery,  one-fourth  cup  each  of  turnip,  parsnip  and 
cabbage,  cut  fine.  This  will  control  the  flavor  of  the 
soup,  aijd  you  may  now  add  bits  of  corn,  string  beans, 
hard-boiled  eggs,  etc.  To  finish  the  flavoring,  add  a  cup 
of  strained  tomatoes,  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  chopped 
parsley. 

Mixed  Tomato  Soup. 

Use  as  much  strained  celery  as  tomato,  otherwise  make 
the  same  as  puree  of  tomato,  page  274. 

Mixed  Broths  with  Tomato. 

If  the  bits  of  stock  are  the  remains  from  roasts  of  turkey 
and  beef,  mix  them  and  cook  bones,  gravy,  and  dressing 
together  in  cold  water,  strain,  add  a  cup  of  strained  toma- 
to to  each  three  pints,  season,  and  serve.  Be  careful  to 
cook  only  a  short  time,  as  much  cooking  is  apt  to  render 
the  mixture  strong. 

Mixed  Soup—For  Class  Work.. 

One  cup  of  mixed  stock,  one-fourth  cup  of  beans  rubbed 
through  a  puree  sieve,  one  tablespoonful  of  strained  to- 
mato, one- fourth  tablespoonful  of  sugar  caramel,  one- 
fourth  tablespoonful  of  meat  caramel,  one  teaspoonful 
of  butter,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour, — butter  and  flour 
browned  together.  Thicken  with  the  same  amount  of 
plain  flour.  The  browned  butter  and  flour  does  not 
thicken  much. 

Mixed  Soup — For  Home  Work. 

One  quart  of  mixed  stock,  colored  by  using  cooked 
scraps  of  meat,  one  cup  of  baked  beans  rubbed  through 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  271 

a  puree  sieve,  one-fourth  cup  of  strained  tomato,  four  ta- 
blespoonfuls  of  sugar  caramel,  one  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter, one  tablespoonful  of  flour.  Brown  flour  and  butter 
together  and  thicken  as  above.  Mix  all  smoothly  to- 
gether, season,  and  serve. 

Brown  Soup-— For  Class  Work. 

One-half  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one-half  tablespoon- 
ful of  flour.  Cook  together  until  brown.  Add  one  cup 
of  mixed  stock,  simmer  five  minutes,  add  one-half  table- 
spoonful  of  butter  and  the  same  of  flour  rubbed  together, 
and  stir  until  smooth,  and  thickened  a  little. 

Brown  Soup — For  Home  Work. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour.  Cook  together  until  brown.  Add  one  quart  of 
strong  mixed  stock,  let  boil  up,  add  the  same  quantity  of 
butter  and  flour  as  above,  but  do  not  brown  them.  Put 
the  butter  and  flour  for  thickening  into  a  saucepan,  and 
when  melted  put  into  it  a  cup  of  cold  water,  stir  until  it 
thickens,  then  pour  in  a  cup  of  hot  soup  stock,  stir  until 
smooth,  arid  pour  into  the  kettle.  The  browned  flour 
colors,  but  does  not  thicken  the  liquid. 

Scotch  Broth— For  Home  Work. 

To  each  quart  of  mixed  stock  add  a  scant  one-half  cup 
of  cooked  carrots,  turnips,  onions,  and  celery  in  equal 
parts.  Add,  also,  one-fourth  cup  of  cooked  barley  to  each 
quart  of  soup,  and  one-half  cup  of  strained  tomato.  Be- 
fore serving,  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of  chopped  parsley. 
Thicken  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  and  the  same 
of  flour. 

Scotch  Broth — For  Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  broth,  one-half  tablespoonful  of  barley, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  tomato,  one  tablespoonful  of  carrot, 
turnip,  and  onion  in  equal  parts,  one-fourth  teaspoonful 
of  butter,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  flour,  one-fourth  tea- 
spoonful  of  parsley.  Put  together  same  as  above. 


272  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Mixed  Vegetable  Soup — Home  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  cooked  lima  beans,  one-half  cup  of 
cooked  sweet  corn,  one-fourth  cup  of  cooked  tomatoes, 
three  cups  of  cold  water.  Cook  all  together  five  minutes 
after  it  begins  to  boil,  strain,  season  to  taste  with  salt  and 
pepper,  and  serve. 

Mixed  Vegetable  Soup — Class  Rule. 

One  tablespoonful  of  cooked  lima  beans,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  cooked  sweet  corn,  one  tablespoonful  of 
cooked  tomatoes,  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  cold  water. 
Put  together  as  above. 

Odds  and  Ends  Soup — Home  Rule. 

Two  cups  of  stock  (meat),  one-half  cup  of  corn  (cook- 
ed), one-fourth  cup  of  beans  (cooked),  one-fourth  cup  of 
tomatoes  (cooked),  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one-half 
of  a  hard-boiled  egg,  chopped.  Heat  all  together,  season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve. 

Odds  and  Ends  Soup—Class  Rule. 

One-half  cup  of  stock,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  corn,  one 
tablespoonful  of  beans,  one  tablespoonful  of  tomatoes,  one 
teaspoonful  of  sugar,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  egg. 

PUREES  AND  CREAM  SOUPS. 

The  class  of  soups  with  which  we  have  been  dealing 
contains  those  which  are  composed  of  meat  broth  flavor- 
ed with  vegetables.  When  the  vegetables  appeared  at  all, 
they  were  in  distinct  pieces  floating  about  in  the  liquid. 
In  the  class  with  which  we  are  now  to  deal,  the  vegetables 
play  a  very  important  part.  The  cooked  and  strained 
vegetable  has  liquid  enough  added  to  it  to  make  it  of  the 
right  consistency  for  soup.  The  mixture  is  thickened  a 
little  with  flour,  arrowroot,  or  cornstarch.  Arrowroot 
thickens  without  having  any  perceptible  effect  in  other 
ways.  Flour  thickens,  but  clouds  some,  and  gives  a 
pleasant  flavor.  Cornstarch  gives  a  decided  flavor  to 
whatever  is  thickened  with  it.  The  liquid  used  in  these 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  273 

soups  may  be  water,  meat  stock,  or  milk.  When  water 
is  used,  they  are  sometimes  called  "summer  soups,"  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  ones  with  broth,  which  are 
known  as  "winter  soups."  For  the  sake  of  distinction, 
we  will  call  those  made  with  water  or  stock  "purees,"  and 
those  with  milk  or  cream,  "cream  soups." 

Puree  of  Baked  Beans. 

Pour  one  cup  of  boiling  water  over  a  pint  of  cold  baked 
beans,  stir  until  hot,  and  then  strain  through  a  puree 
sieve.  Add  three  cups  of  soup  stock  or  water,  thicken  as 
directed  in  remarks  on  soup,  and  serve.  Use  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  and  one  of  butter  to  each  quart  of 
soup. 

The  object  of  thickening  purees  is  that  the  ingredients 
may  be  better  blended  and  mixed. 

Puree  of  Black  Beans. 

One  pint  of  beans,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one 
of  butter.  Look  the  beans  over,  and  put  to  soak  over 
night,  drain  the  water  off,  and  put  the  beans  to  cook. 
For  one  pint  of  beans  add  three  pints  of  boiling  water, 
and  salt  a  little.  They  should  cook  slowly  eight  or  ten 
hours  to  have  the  best  flavor,  and  it  is  easier  to  cook 
them  in  a  bean  pot  or  in  a  stone  jar,  with  a  stone  cover, 
in  the  oven.  Put  in  boiling  water  as  it  evaporates,  to 
keep  the  amount  about  the  same.  When  done  rub 
through  a  sieve,  and  add  one  pint  of  soup  stock  or 
water.  This  makes  a  quart  in  all,  thicken  with  the  but- 
ter and  flour  and  season  to  taste.  Slice  into  it  one- 
half  a  lemon,  cut  very  fine,  and  put  in  one  hard-boiled 
egg,  chopped,  and  serve.  Tomatoes  and  either  baked 
beans  or  black  beans  may  be  used  together  as  directed 
in  mixed  soups,  or  water  instead  of  soup  stock  may  be 
used. 

Both  the  baked  beans  and  the  black  beans  may  be  used 
with  milk  instead  of  water,  thus  making  a  cream  soup, 


274  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

but  it  is  better  to  use  them  either  in  mixed  soups,  or  with 
water  or  soup  stock  in  purees,  because  the  color  does 
not  harmonize  so  well  with  milk.  Serve  with  croutons  or 
toasted  crackers. 

Puree  of  Tomatoes. 

One  quart  of  cooked  strained  tomatoes  (cooked  in 
their  own  juices),  two  cups  of  hot  water,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  sugar.  If  onion  is  liked,  put  in  one  teaspoon- 
f ul,  grated.  Thicken  with  two  level  tablespoonfuls .  of 
flour  and  the  same  of  butter.  Cook  slowly  half  an  hour. 
Season  to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Puree  of  Split  Peas. 

One  cup  of  meat  stock,  one  cup  of  dried  split  peas,  one 
tablespoonful  of  flour,  one-half  tablespoonful  of  sugar 
and  one-half  level  tablespoonful  of  butter. 

Look  the  peas  over,  wash,  and  put  to  soak  in  three 
pints  of  cold  water.  Soak  over  night,  or  for  several 
hours.  Heat  to  boiling  point  in  water  in  which  they 
were  soaked  and  put  into  a  stone  jar  with  a  cover,  or  in 
a  bean  pot.  Set  in  an  oven,  and  let  cook  eight  or  ten 
hours.  Fill  up  with  hot  water  if  they  dry  out  too  much 
as  they  cook.  When  taken  from  the  oven,  mash  through 
a  puree  sieve,  thicken  the  broth  with  the  flour  and  but- 
ter, season  to  taste  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  bring 
to  the  boiling  point,  and  serve.  They  may  be  seasoned 
with  salt  pork  added  when  put  to  cook,  same  as  baked 
beans.  To  thicken  the  puree,  melt  the  butter  and  flour 
together  in  a  saucepan,  and  then  add  the  stock  cold  and 
let  boil  a  few  minutes. 

Puree  of  Lentils. 

Prepare  the  lentils,  and  cook  same  as  split  peas,  and 
make  soup  by  same  rule. 

Cream  of  Split  Peas. 

Proceed  as  for  puree  of  split  peas,  except  use  milk 
instead  of  meat  stock. 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  275 

Puree  of  Green  Peas — For  Home  Work. 

One  cup  of  strained  green  peas,  one  tablespoonful  of 
butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one  quart  of  veal, 
chicken  or  lamb  broth.  Thicken  the  broth  with  flour  and 
butter  as  in  making  drawn  butter  sauce  (page  200)  mix 
with  the  peas,  let  boil  up,  season,  and  serve. 

Puree  of  Green  Peas — For  Class  Work. 

One-fourth  cup  of  strained  peas,  one-half  teaspoonful 
of  butter,  one  teaspoonful  of  flour,  one  cup  of  veal  or 
chicken  broth. 

Cream  of  Peas. 

One  teaspoonful  of  butter,  one  and  one-half  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  flour  and  one-half  cup  of  strained  peas,  one-half 
cup  of  veal  or  chicken  broth,  one-half  cup  of  whole  milk. 
Put  together  the  same  as  puree  of  green  peas. 

Cream  of  Potatoes. 

Wash,  pare,  and  cut  into  dice  six  good-sized  potatoes. 
Add  one  tablespoonful  of  minced  onion,  and  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt.  Put  to  cook  in  as  little  boiling  water 
as  is  practicable,  and  when  the  potatoes  are  done  mash 
fine  and  add  one  quart  of  hot  milk,  and  stir  constantly,  or 
set  off  the  hottest  part  of  the  stove  while  you  mix  together 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter  and  two  of  flour.  Put  the 
mixture  on  the  end  of  a  wooden  spoon,  and  stir  into  the 
liquid  until  the  flour  and  butter  are  incorporated  and  the 
soup  slightly  thickened.  Add  salt  and  pepper  to  taste. 

Puree  of  Potatoes— For  Class  Work. 

Butter,  one  teaspoonful,  flour,  one  teaspoonful,  whole 
milk,  one  cup,  potato  (before  cooking  cut  in  cubes),  one- 
half  cup,  onion,  one-half  tablespoonful.  Cook  potato  and 
onion  together,  and  mash  through  a  sieve.  Cook  butter, 
flour  and  milk  into  a  sauce  (page  261),  and  when  sea- 
soned pour  over  the  prepared  onion  and  potato,  and 
serve. 


276  .      HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Puree  of  Potatoes— For  Home  Work. 

Butter  one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls,  flour  one  and 
one-half  tablespoonfuls,  whole  milk  one  and  one-half 
pints,  potato,  before  cooking,  one  cup,  onion  two  and  one- 
fourth  tablespoonfuls.  Put  together  as  above.  Cold 
mashed  potatoes  may  be  used  in  the  soup  instead  of  fresh 
ones. 

Cream  of  Salsify. 

One  cup  of  strained  salsify,  one-half  cup  of  strained 
corn,  one  pint  chicken  or  veal  broth,  one  pint  of  whole 
milk,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  one  tablespoonful  of 
butter.  Wash  the  roots  well.  Scrape  off  the  outside,  cut 
in  pieces,  and  drop  into  cold  water  slightly  acidulated 
with  vinegar  to  prevent  discoloring.  Put  to  cook  in 
water  which  is  hot  and  slightly  salted.  Use  just  water 
enough  to  prevent  burning.  When  tender,  mash 
through  a  puree  sieve,  and  add  the  pulp  to  the  boiling 
chicken  or  veal  broth.  Thicken  with  the  butter  and 
flour  rubbed  together,  let  cook  until  smooth,  stirring  all 
the  time,  then  add  the  milk,  let  boil  up,  season  and  serve. 

Cream  of  Corn. 

One  pint  of  corn  prepared  as  for  stewing,  water  to 
cover.  Cook  until  soft,  and  mash  through  a  puree  sieve. 
Add  water  to  make  a  pint.  Put  into  a  saucepan  one- 
half  tablespoonful  of  butter  and  the  same  of  flour,  let 
melt,  and  stir  together.  Pour  in  one  pint  of  cold  milk, 
let  boil,  stirring  all  the  time,  then  add  the  corn  pulp,  let 
boil  up,  season,  add  one-half  a  tablespoonful  of  sugar, 
and  serve. 

Cream  of  Corn— Class  Rule. 

One- fourth  cup  of  corn  after  straining  (either  stewed 
or  canned  corn),  one-fourth  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  flour,  one  teaspoonful  of  butter;  thicken  the 
milk  with  butter  and  flour,  add  the  corn,  mix  well  and 
bring  to  the  boiling  point,  season  with  salt  and  pepper, 
and  serve. 


SOUPS  AND  SOUP  MAKING.  277 

Cream  of  Lima  Beans. 

Lima  beans  are  better  in  a  cream  than  in  a  puree.  To 
each  pint  of  cooked  lima  beans  add  a  cup  of  hot  water, 
and  when  hot,  rub  through  the  sieve.  Now  add  one 
pint  of  milk,  season  to  taste,  and  thicken  with  one  table- 
spoonful  of  flour  and  the  same  of  butter,  add  a  little 
cream  if  milk  is  used. 

Corbena  Soup. 

Make  same  as  the  above,  using  one-third  as  much 
corn  as  beans,  and  as  much  rice  as  corn. 

Cream  of  Corn  and  Beans. 

To  each  cup  and  a  half  of  cooked  corn  use  one-half 
cup  of  baked  beans.  Add  one  cup  of  hot  water,  and  rub 
through  a  sieve.  Then  add  one  pint  of  milk,  put  over 
the  fire,  bring  to  the  boiling  point  and  stir  into  it  one 
tablespoonful  of  flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  (rub- 
bed to  a  paste),  cook  four  or  five  minutes,  season  with 
a  level  teaspoonful  of  salt,  a  little  pepper,  and  serve. 

Cream  of  Celery. 

Wash  clean  and  cut  into  inch  lengths  celery  enough  to 
fill  a  pint  measure.  Keep  covered  with  water  and  boil 
until  soft.  Mash  through  a  puree  sieve,  and  finish  as 
cream  of  corn.  Use  only  the  coarser  parts  and  roots  of 
celery. 

Cream  of  Mixed  Vegetables. 

Mix  cooked  peas,  lima  beans,  sweet  corn,  tomatoes,  and 
celery  in  equal  parts,  mash  through  the  sieve.  To  this 
pulp  add  chicken  or  veal  broth  one-half  as  much  as  is 
needed  to  render  it  of  the  proper  consistency,  and  the 
other  half  cream  or  whole  milk,  and  thicken  as  any  cream 
soup. 

Puree  of  Mixed  Vegetables  No-  1. 

Mix  half  a  cup  each  of  carrots,  turnips,  and  celery, 
and  mash  through  the  sieve,  also  one-fourth  cup  of  onions 


278  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and  a  cup  of  tomatoes.  Into  the  mixed  pulp  pour  one 
quart  of  meat  broth,  thicken  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour  and  one  of  butter,  season,  and  serve. 

Puree  of  Mixed  Vegetables  No.  2. 

Make  the  puree  of  mixed  vegetables  the  same  as  mixed 
vegetable  soup  (page  272),  except  rub  the  pulp  of  the 
vegetables  through  a  sieve  into  the  stock,  and  thicken  it 
a  little,  using  one  tablespoonful  of  flour  and  one  table- 
spoonful  of  butter  to  one  cup  of  the  stock. 

Bread-Crumb  Soup. 

Two  cups  of  broth,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  bread 
crumbs,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
butter.  Heat  the  broth  and  cook  the  thickening  in  it 
until  the  flour  is  cooked,  stir  in  the  bread  crumbs,  sea- 
son with  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  a  dash  of 
pepper. 

Bread-Crumb  Soup — Class  Rule. 

One-half  cup  of  broth,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  bread 
crumbs,  one  teaspoonful  of  flour,  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
butter. 

Fish  Chowder. 

Plain  crackers  (six),  fish  picked  up  (one  quart),  sliced 
raw  potatoes  (one  quart),  salt  pork,  cut  fine  (one  cup), 
onions,  cut  fine  (•one-half  cup),  cream  or  milk  (one 
quart).  Season  the  milk  highly,  and  have  ready  to  pour 
over  the  other  ingredients.  Saute  the  pork,  then  cook 
the  onions  in  pork  fat,  being  careful  not  to  burn  them. 
Now  put  in  the  potato  and  fish  in  alternate  layers,  and  cov- 
er scantily  with  boilng  water.  Cook  until  the  potatoes  are 
nearly  done,  then  add  the  cream  and  cracker  crumbs.  As 
soon  as  it  boils,  serve.  To  fish  chowder,  corn  and  toma- 
toes are  often  added. 

Oyster  Soup. 

One  cup  of  whole  milk,  or  skimmed  milk,  if  desired, 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  butter,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour. 


SALADS   AND  GARNISHES.  279 

Put  butter  and  flour  in  the  saucepan  and  let  melt  and 
stir  together,  then  pour  in  the  cold  milk,  and  cook  the 
flour  until  it  does  not  taste  raw.  Free  the  oysters  from 
bits  of  shell,  and  put  in  just  long  enough  to  become  plump 
and  have  the  edges  curl.  Season  to  taste  with  salt  and 
pepper. 

Oyster  Stew. 

Use  milk  or  water  with  the  liquid  in  the  oysters.  Heat 
the  liquid,  cook  the  oysters  in  it  until  they  look  plump 
and  the  edges  curl,  then  season  and  serve. 

Lobster  Bisque,  or  Cream  of  Lobster — For  Home  Work. 

One  cup  lobster,  one  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  flour,  one-half  level  teaspoonful  of  salt  (in 
canned  lobster,  salt  to  taste).  One-half  teaspoonful  is 
generally  enough.  Pepper  to  taste.  One  pint  of  milk 
and  lobster  broth  mixed.  Make  a  sauce  with  half  the 
liquid  and  the  butter  and  flour,  as  directed  on  page  261 ; 
when  it  boils,  put  in  the  chopped  lobster,  let  boil  again, 
add  the  rest  of  the  liquid,  season,  and  serve.  The  bisque 
should  have  some  lobster  coral  to  give  it  color.  May 
buy  dried  coral,  or  add  a  little  tomato,  to  color.  To  the 
above  quantity  add  one-fourth  of  a  cup  of  tomato,  if  to- 
mato is  used. 

Lobster  Bisque  or  Cream  of  Lobster — For  Class  Work. 

One-half  level  teaspoonful  of  butter,  one-half  level  tea- 
spoonful  of  flour,  one  saltspoonful  of  salt,  one-half  salt- 
spoonful  of  pepper,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  lobster,  one- 
half  cup  of  milk.  Put  together  same  as  above. 

Puree  of  Salmon  or  any  Fish. 

One  level  tablespoonful  of  flour,  one  level  tablespoon- 
ful of  butter,  one  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  cup  of  minced 
salmon,  one-half  cup  of  strained  tomato,  a  little  soda  in 
the  tomatoes.  Make  a  white  sauce  with  the  butter,  flour, 
and  milk,  season  to  taste,  put  the  salmon  in,  and  let  boil, 
then  stir  the  tomatoes  into  it. 


280  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Cream  of  Chicken  No.  1. 

One  quart  of  chicken  broth,  freed  from  fat,  one  cup 
of  sweet  cream  or  whole  milk.  Put  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  flour  and  one  of  butter  in  a  saucepan.  When  this  is 
melted,  and  the  two  blended,  pour  in  one  pint  of  cold 
chicken  broth,  stir  until  it  boils,  add  the  rest  of  the  broth, 
and  let  boil  a  few  minutes,  pour  in  the  cream  or  milk,  and 
when  hot,  season  arid  serve. 

Cream  of  Chicken  No.  2. 

Make  same  as  above,  and  add  a  little  chopped  parsley 
just  before  serving. 

Cream  of  Chicken  No.  3. 

Make  in  the  same  manner,  but  use  one  pint  of  celery 
stock  and  one  of  chicken  instead  of  all  chicken  broth. 

Cream  of  Chicken  No.  4. 

Make  just  the  same  as  No.  i,  and  add  a  few  drops 
of  onion  juice. 

Cream  of  Tomatoes. 

Two  cups  of  strained  tomatoes,  two  cups  of  milk,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter; 
thicken  the  milk  with  the  flour  and  butter,  heat  the  toma- 
toes, remove  from  the  stove  and  pour  the  thickened  milk 
into  the  tomatoes,  season  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve. 
If  the  tomatoes  are  very  acid  one-eighth  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  soda  added  to  them  aids  in  preventing  the  soup  curd- 
ling. 

Cream  of  Tomatoes— Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  milk,  one-half  cup  of  tomatoes,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  flour  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of  butter. 

References:  Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  105-116;  Art 
of  Cookery — Ewing — pp.  100-108;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  34,  pp.  19,  20;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp. 
Stations,  Bulletin  No.  21,  pp.  96,  97;  Elements  of  Cookery — 
Williams  &  Fisher — pp.  155-161;  Boston  Cook  Book — Lincoln — 
pp.  119-130. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 


SALADS,  SALAD  DRESSINGS  AND  GARNISHES. 

Salad  dressings  may  be  divided  into  four  general 
classes, — cream  dressings,  cooked  egg  dressings,  mayon- 
naise (oil  dressing),  and  French  dressing.  The  dress- 
ing must  be  chosen  to  suit  the  ingredients  of  the  salad, 


Utensils  and  Materials  for  Making  Salad. 


as  its  mission  is  to  soften  and  mollify  too  decided  flavors, 
or  make  more' decided  a  flavor  not  sufficiently  pronounced. 
The  seasoning  must  be  put  into  the  dressing,  and  the 
salad  materials  and  dressing  so  combined  as  to  enhance 
rather  than  mar  the  beauty  of  the  dish.  Generally  speak- 
ing, French  dressing  is  best  suited  to  such  vegetables  as 
lettuce,  watercress,  cucumbers  and  onions.  Cream  dress- 
ing suits  best  those  things  which  harmonize  with  milk 
flavor,  as  cabbage,  apples,  beets,  etc.  Cooked  dressing 
is  palatable  with  most  vegetables  used  for  salads,  but  there 


282  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

are  a  few  which  are  better  with  oil  or  mayonnaise  dress- 
ing. Celery  and  tomatoes  are  notable  examples  of  this 
class.  All  meat  salads  are  more  palatable  when  dressed 
with  a  mayonnaise  than  with  a  cooked  dressing. 

Salads,  especially  when  made  of  green  vegetables,  are 
very  beneficial  to  the  health,  both  on  account  of  vegetable 
salts  and  acids  which  they  furnish  the  system,  and  because 
they  are  crisp  and  cool,  and  furnish  bulk  in  an  agreeable 
form.  In  raw  vegetables,  the  nourishment  is  all  used. 
None  is  lost,  as  is  often  the  case  when  vegetables  are 
cooked.  For  every-day  use,  the  simpler  the  dressing  the 
better,  much  of  the  time.  Frequently,  salt,  pepper,  and 
vinegar  are  all  that  is  needed.  "Variety  is  the  spice  of 
life"  applies  to  salads  as  well  as  to  other  things,  and  it  is 
consequently  better  to  use  few  materials  at  a  time,  even 
when  making  mixed  salads,  in  order  to  have  a  greater 
variety. 

A  fish  salad  should  always  have  a  little  lettuce  or  water- 
cress cut  into  bits  and  mixed  with  the  fish,  and  is  often 
improved  by  the  addition  of  boiled  eggs  chopped. 

Mushrooms,  both  raw  and  cooked,  are  used  as  salads, 
though  they  are  less  desirable  than  many  other  vegetables. 

A  variety  of  flavors  may  be  had  by  using  tarragon 
vinegar,  chervil,  garlic,  etc.,  when  desired,  in  making  salad 
dressings. 

GENERAL  RULES  FOR  SALADS. 

The  meats  generally  used  for  salads  are  chicken,  beef, 
fish,  tongue  (pickled  or  fresh),  sweetbreads,  and  shad- 
roe.  Meats  for  salad  should  be  fine  flavored,  boiled,  and 
cooled  in  the  water  in  which  cooked,  to  render  juicy  as 
possible,  but  removed  before  the  liquid  gelatinizes.  The 
meat  should  be  freed  from  all  fat,  gristle,  and  undesir- 
able parts,  and  cut  into  small  dice,  in  order  that  it  may 
the  more  readily  be  penetrated  by  the  dressing.  It  may 
be  marinated,  as  on  page  285,  or  not,  as  desired. 


SALADS   AND   GARNISHES.  283 

In  preparing  green  vegetables  for  salads,  see  that  the 
vegetables  are  fresh,  crisp,  cold,  clean,  and  the  surplus 
moisture  removed  by  a  cloth  which  absorbs  it  without 
bruising  the  delicate  materials.  When  selecting  green 
and  tender  salad  plants,  as  lettuce,  watercress,  etc.,  see 
that  they  are  the  best  of  their  kind,  and  avoid  bruising 
and  breaking  them.  Dry  them  when  washed,  and  put 
into  a  cool  place  with  the  dishes  in  which  they  are  to  be 
mixed  and  served.  In  mixing  a  salad  in  which  the  vege- 
tables are  cooked,  avoid  breaking  and  mushing  them  in 
putting  the  materials  together. 

In  making  fruit  salads,  avoid  having  them  too  thick. 
Use  as  little  gelatine  as  will  keep  the  mixture  in  shape 
when  served.  An  orange  cup  is  a  pretty  receptacle  for  a 
fruit  salad.  Fruit  salads  are  sometimes  dressed  with  oil, 
but  this  should  be  avoided,  for  the  fruit  flavor  is  not  thus 
improved,  and  there  are  meats  and  vegetables  which, 
when  made  into  salads,  are  improved  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  oil.  A  delicate  flavor  of  onion  or  garlic  may  be  im- 
parted to  a  salad  by  simply  rubbing  the  dish  in  which 
it  is  to  be  served  with  onion  or  garlic. 

SALAD  MAKING. 

Salad  making  is  a  very  important  branch  in  the  prep- 
aration of  food,  since  the  salad  materials  require  careful 
handling  to  insure  success.  Very  pleasing  and  hygienic 
dishes  may  be  prepared  from  uncooked  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, thus  giving  the  system  the  benefit  of  the  fruit  and 
vegetable  acids,  as  well  as  furnishing  a  pleasing  va- 
riety. 

Salads  have  their  place  in  using  up  left  overs,  as  some 
of  the  most  delicious  dishes  are  the  result  of  a  wise 
mingling  of  various  edibles  in  salads.  In  order  to  be- 
come proficient  in  salad  making,  one  must  make  a  careful 
study  of  relative  flavors,  and  the  manner  of  handling 
salad  materials,  that  their  natural  flavors  may  be  re- 
tained and  the  mass  preserve  an  attractive  appearance. 


284  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Bits  of  cold  fish  may  be  combined  properly  with  hard- 
boiled  eggs,  lettuce,  cucumbers,  tomatoes,  or  cress.  Any 
of  these  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose.  Celery 
and  fish  are  inharmonious  in  flavor  and  should  not  be 
used  together.  A  suitable  garnish  adds  much  to  the  at- 
tractiveness of  a  salad,  but  nothing  should  be  used  for 
the  purpose  which  cannot  be  eaten  with  the  salad  without 
disguising  the  delicacy  of  the  flavor,  or  detracting  from 
it.  A  salad  should  always  be  appetizing,  refreshing,  and 
attractive. 

In  the  preparation  of  salads,  care  should  be  taken  to 
preserve  the  natural  flavor  of  the  edibles  mingled  to- 
gether in  the  salad,  and  they  should  be  selected  with 
special  reference  to  the  effect  each  will  have  upon  the 
other.  Care  should  be  exercised  also  to  have  the  dress- 
ing such  as  is  best  suited  to  the  peculiar  flavor  and  con- 
dition of  that  salad.  For  example,  cabbage  belongs  to 
the  mustard  family,  hence  a  dressing  for  cabbage  salad 
requires  no  mustard.  A  very  little  onion  used  in  the 
dressing  for  tomato  salad  will  give  a  pleasing  result.  Let- 
tuce, being  very  delicate  in  flavor,  requires  no  other  addi- 
tion to  the  dressing  prepared  for  it  than  salt  and  pepper. 

Salads  may  be  appropriately  divided  into  three  classes. 
Let  us  first  examine  fruit  salads.  Many  fruits  are  fre- 
quently served  at  dinners  as  salads.  Those  most  com- 
monly so  used,  perhaps,  being  strawberries,  currants  and 
oranges.  A  great  variety  of  salads  may  be  prepared  by 
mixing  the  different  fruits,  but  when  this  is  done,  one 
fruit  should  be  chosen  with  special  reference  to  giving 
flavor,  and  the  rest  mainly  for  bulk.  Pineapple,  Malaga 
grapes,  and  oranges  make  a  pleasant  combination.  The 
strawberry  seems  sufficient  within  itself,  and  will  form  a 
salad  which  will  tickle  the  palate  and  make  the  mouth 
water,  with  no  other  dressing  save  a  little  powdered 
sugar  into  which  it  is  dipped  just  previous  to  being  eaten. 

As  a  second  class,  we  have  vegetable  salads. 


SALADS   AND   GARNISHES.  285 

In  a  third  class  may  be  placed  mixed  salads.  Chicken 
salad  is  a  good  example  of  this  variety  of  salad. 

To  Marinate  Meats  for  Salads. 

Use  just  enough  of  the  following  mixture  to  moisten, 
or  moisten  with  salad  dressing,  season  in  the  same  way, 
.and  let  stand  one  hour.  To  make  the  marinating  liquid, 
mix  in  the  proportion  of  three  tablespoon fuls  of  vine- 
gar and  one  of  olive  oil.  Season  with  salt  until  the 
salt  is  barely  perceptible,  then  put  in  a  little  pepper. 
.Stir  up  well,  and  pour  over  the  diced  meat  or  chicken. 
Let  stand  in  the  refrigerator  one  hour  or  more,  then 
drain.  The  object  is  to  flavor  the  meat  a  little,  that  the 
inside  may  not  escape  flavor  after  the  salad  is  mixed. 
When  a  salad  dressing  is  used  instead  of  the  marinating 
liquid,  it  must  be  thinned  with  vinegar — at  least  one- 
fourth— and  a  little  oil  added,  and  the  mixture  seasoned 
nicely. 
Cooked  Salad  Dressing. 

Measure  four  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar,  and  let  boil, 
then  pour  over  two  whole  eggs,  or  four  yolks  beaten  until 
thick  and  lemon  colored.  Stir  while  adding  the  vinegar. 
Put  in  a  saucepan  over  the  fire,  and  cook  until  creamy, 
stirring  all  the  time.  Remove  from  the  fire  and  add  one 
tablespoonful  of  butter  for  each  egg;  beat  well,  and  set 
away  until  needed.  To  each  cup  of  dressing  add  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  mixed  seasoning  when  you  are  ready 
to  use  it. 

The  easiest  way  for  an  amateur  to  insure  this  dressing 
being  perfectly  smooth  is  to  cook  in  a  double  boiler,  or  in 
a  bowl  set  in  hot  water,  or  set  the  bowl  over  the  tea- 
kettle. If  it  does  lump,  use  a  dover  beater,  and  beat  vigor- 
ously until  all  lumps  disappear. 

Mayonnaise  or  Oil  Dressing. 

Select  a  large  coffee  cup,  and  see  that  the  dover  egg 
beater  will  turn  in  it.  Then  put  a  bottle  of  good  olive 
oil,  a  fresh  lemon,  and  the  dover  beater  in  a  pan  of  ice 


286  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

water,  and  let  stand  one  hour.  Wipe  the  cup  and  beater 
perfectly  dry.  Put  the  egg  yolk  in  the  bowl,  and  beat  a 
few  turns,  then  put  in  a  few  drops  of  oil  and  beat  again, 
and  so  continue  until  the  mixture  becomes  very  thick. 
Then  wipe  the  lemon,  squeeze  the  juice  out,  put  a  tea- 
spoonful  into  the  mixture,  and  beat.  This  will  thin  the 
dressing.  Now  add  oil,  and  beat  until  it  thickens  again, 
and  add  lemon  juice,  and  so  continue  until  you  have  the 
desired  quantity  of  dressing. 

French  Dressing. 

Olive  oil,  three  measures;  vinegar,  one  measure.  Use 
salt  until  the  salt  is  almost  as  strong  as  the  vinegar.  Pep- 
per to  taste  a  little.  Have  both  oil  and  vinegar  very  cold, 
and  put  the  oil  in  a  drop  at  a  time,  beating  constantly  un- 
til it  is  in.  If  you  prefer  less  oil,  use  three  parts  vinegar 
to  one  part  oil,  stir  together,  and  season  as  before.  Serve 
this  dressing  on  watercress,  lettuce,  or  endive  when 
dressed  for  salads. 

Cream  Dressing  No.  1. 

Mash  yolks  of  three  hard-boiled  eggs  fine,  add  two 
level  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
one  level  teaspoonful  of  mustard,  one-half  level  teaspoon- 
ful of  pepper,  and  stir  well.  Add  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
vinegar  a  little  at  a  time,  and  stir  until  well  mixed.  Add 
to  this  one  pint  of  whipped  cream,  and  use  for  dressing 
vegetable  salads. 

Cream  Dressing  No.  2. 

One  tablespoonful  flour,  one  tablespoonful  butter,  one- 
half  cup  of  cream,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar.  Meas- 
ure flour  and  butter,  and  melt  together.  Then  pour  in  the 
cream  and  cook  until  quite  thick.  When  done,  add  grad- 
ually the  vinegar.  When  cool,  add  one-fourth  cup  of 
thin  cream,  or  one-half  cup  of  whipped  cream. 

Use  these  cream  dressings  in  making  apple  and  cabbage 
salads  especially. 


SALADS   AND  GARNISHES. 

Cream  Dressing  No.  3. 

One  hard-boiled  egg  yolk,  two-thirds  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  sugar,  one-third  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-third  of 
a  teaspoonful  of  mustard,  one-sixth  of  a  teaspoonful  of 
pepper,  rub  with  the  yolk,  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vine- 
gar and  one-fourth  of  a  cup  of  white  sauce,  or  two-thirds 
of  a  cup  of  whipped  cream.  The  egg  whites  may  be  cut 
into  cubes  and  dressed  with  this  dressing.  This  makes  a 
very  palatable  salad.  To  make  the  white  sauce,  use  one- 
fourth  of  a  cup  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  and  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  butter. 

Tomato  Dressing. 

One  egg,  beaten  very  light.  Pour  over  it  boiling  hot 
one  tablespoonful  of  strained  tomato  and  one  tablespoon- 
ful of  vinegar,  stirring  while  pouring.  Place  over  the 
fire  and  cook  until  it  thickens,  then  remove  from  the  fire 
and  stir  in  one  tablespoonful  of  butter.  Season  with 
mixed  seasoning  No.  3,  using  one  level  teaspoonful  of 
the  seasoning  and  one  cup  of  the  dressing.  Use  on  a 
salad  made  of  salmon  and  diced  tomato  in  equal  parts. 

Mixed  Seasoning  No.  1. 

One  teaspoonful  of  mustard,  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
pepper,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  one  teaspoonful  of 
sugar.  Use  in  dressing  tomato  salad. 

Mixed  Seasoning  No.  2. 

Three  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  pep- 
per, two  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar.  Use  this  seasoning  with 
cabbage  salad  or  cold  slaw. 

Mixed  Salad  Seasoning  No.  3. 

One  teaspoonful  of  mustard,  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
pepper,  three  teaspoonfuls  of  salt.  Mix  well,  and  use 
what  you  need.  Used  in  most  meat  and  vegetable  salads. 

Tomato  Salad. 

Scald  and  cool  the  tomatoes  as  directed  on  page 
55.  Season  to  taste,  with  mixed  seasoning,  one  cup  of 


288  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

cooked  salad  dressing  (page  285).  A  cup  of  dressing 
will  need  a  generous  teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasoning  and 
one-half  a  teaspoonful  of  grated  onion  if  made  with  good 
vinegar.  Peel  and  cut  each  tomato  in  two  parts,  and  put 
the  dressing  on  top.  Garnish  with  nasturtium  or  lettuce 
leaf  or  watercress,  under  the  tomato. 

Winter  Tomato  Salad. 

One-fourth  cup  of  tomato  strained,  one  level  teaspoon- 
ful of  gelatine,  one  tablespoonful  of  water.  Season  with 
salt  and  pepper.  Put  the  water  on  the  gelatine,  let  soak 
until  dissolved,  then  add  the  tomato,  which  has  been 
heated,  pour  into  cups,  cool,  and  serve  on  a  lettuce  leaf 
with  a  tablespoonful  of  salad  dressing.  The  tomato  and 
gelatine  mixture  should  be  about  one-half  an  inch  thick 
in  the  glass  when  put  to  cool.  This  is  inferior  to  fresh 
tomato,  but  can  be  used  when  they  are  not  to  be  had. 

Tomato  Salad  in  Tomato  Cups. 

Select  medium-sized,  firm  tomatoes,  of  good  color,  cut . 
off  the  blossom  end  about  one-third  of  the  way  down, 
scoop  out  the  inside,  and  discard  all  inedible  parts.  Cut 
the  core  and  the  one-third  which  was  cut  off  into  small 
pieces,  add  to  the  pulp,  and  put  to  drain  in  a  colander. 
Put  the  tomato  cups  where  they  will  be  very  cold.  Take 
one-half  cup  of  mayonnaise  and  one-half  cup  of  cooked 
dressing.  Mix  thoroughly  with  it  one  teaspoonful  of 
grated  onion,  the  same  of  chopped  parsley  and  season  with 
one  level  teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasoning  No.  3.  Just  be- 
fore serving  add  to  the  drained  pulp  enough  of  this 
dressing  to  moisten  well,  put  into  the  chilled  tomato 
cups,  and  serve  on  cold  plates.  Garnish  with  nasturtium 
leaves,  lettuce  or  watercress. 

Frozen  Tomato  Salad. 

Strain  canned  tomatoes,  and  season  with  salt  and  pep- 
per. Freeze  same  as  ice  cream.  Cut  into  egg-shaped 
pieces  with  a  silver  tablespoon,  and  serve  on  a  lettuce 
leaf.  Dress  with  mayonnaise  (oil  dressing),  or  with 


SALADS  AND  GARNISHES.  289 

cooked  dressing;  oil  dressing  is  best.  Put  a  spoonful  of 
the  dressing,  seasoned  as  for  tomato  salad  in  cups  (page 
288),  on  the  lettuce  leaf  beside  the  salad.  This  is  inferior 
to  fresh  tomato,  but  may  be  used  when  tomatoes  are  not 
in  season. 

Tomato,  Celery,  and  Nut  Salad. 

Prepare  the  tomatoes  and  dressing  as  for  tomato 
salad  in  cups  (page  288),  except  leave  out  the  onion. 
When  ready  to  put  together  (just  before  serving),  meas- 
ure the  tomato,  and  add  half  the  bulk  of  celery  and  nuts 
in  equal  amounts,  and  mix  well  with  the  tomato  before 
adding  the  dressing.  If  oil  dressing  is  distasteful,  use 
the  cooked  dressing  on  page  285,  and  proceed  in  the  same 
way.  The  above  violates  the  law  of  harmony,  because  the 
tomatoes  are  soft  and  velvety,  and  the  other  ingredients 
hard  and  nutty,  but  the  flavors  combine  well. 

Onion  Salad. 

Put  onions  in  a  cool  place  or  in  cold  water  until 
thoroughly  chilled,  then  cut  in  very  thin  slices  (under 
water,  or  in  a  draught  of  air).  To  a  cup  of  mildly  acid! 
vinegar  add  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  one-half  tea- 
spoonful  of  sugar.  Add  pepper  to  taste,  and  pour  over 
the  sliced  onions  just  before  using,  or  use  a  French  dress- 
ing, as  given  on  page  286. 

Carrot  Salad. 

Scrape  small  carrots,  and  cook  whole.  When  done,  re- 
move from  the  water  and  cut  into  small  dice.  For  each 
cup  of  water  in  which  the  carrots  were  cooked  use  one 
tablespoonful  of  butter  and  one  of  flour,  and  make  a  sauce 
in  same  manner  as  described  on  page  50.  When  the  sauce 
is  made,  add  one  tablespoonful  of  very  acid  vinegar,  or 
two  of  medium  acid.  Season  to  taste  with  salt  and  pep- 
per and  serve  either  hot  or  cold. 
10 


290  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

String  Bean  Salad — Cooked  Dressing. 

Select  young,  tender  beans  of  some  stringless  variety, — 
wax  beans  are  nice.  Break  off  a  little  portion  from  each 
end  and  divide  each  bean  pod  in  the  center.  Cook  three 
hours  slowly,  but  do  not  make  broken  and  unsightly. 
Have  the  beans  very  cold.  Put  one  cup  of  cooked  salad 
dressing  (page  285)  in  a  bowl,  and  add  to  it  one  generous 
teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasonings,  and  one-half  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  grated  onion,  or  of  onion  juice,  extracted  as  directed 
on  page  478.  Mix  these  thoroughly  with  the  dressing. 
Put  the  beans,  a  few  at  a  time,  in  the  bowl,  and  with  two 
silver  forks  mix  with  the  seasoning  so  that  the  beans  may 
not  become  mushy.  Serve  on  a  lettuce  leaf. 

Asparagus  Salad. 

Make  a  cooked  salad  dressing  as  on  page  285.  Have 
the  dressing  very  cold,  and  mix  with  it  one-third  as 
much  whipped  cream  as  there  is  dressing.  Mix  salt  and 
pepper  in  a  cup,  using  three  teaspoonfuls  of  salt  to 
one-half  a  teaspoonful  of  pepper.  Mix  one  and  one- 
fourth  teaspoonfuls  of  this  with  a  generous  cup  of  the 
dressing,  or  enough  to  season  it  quite  highly.  Tie  tender 
asparagus  in  bunches,  and  cook  until  done  in  as  little  boil- 
ing water  as  is  practicable.  When  cold,  remove  the 
strings,  lay  the  asparagus  in  the  salad  dish  a  few  pieces 
at  a  time,  and  pour  on  some  dressing,  then  add  more  aspar- 
agus, and  so  on,  to  avoid  making  a  mushy,  unsightly  mass, 

Cabbage  Salad — Cooked  Dressing. 

One  measure  of  cabbage,  shaved  fine,  one-half  a  meas- 
ure of  cooked  mayonnaise  dressing,  one-fourth  measure  of 
whipped  cream.  Mix  salt  and  pepper  in  same  propor- 
tion as  usual  for  salads,  but  leave  out  the  mustard,  be- 
cause cabbage  has  enough  of  this  flavor  already.  Season 
to  taste  with  the  mixed  salt  and  pepper,  and  put  in  half 
as  much  sugar  as  you  have  used  of  the  mixed  seasoning. 
In  other  words,  mix  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  of  sugar 
and  one-half  of  pepper,  and  use  what  you  need  of  it. 


SALADS   AND   GARNISHES.  291 

Cold  Slaw. 

To  each  cup  of  vinegar  of  medium  strength  add  one 
teaspoonful  of  the  following  mixture :  Three  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  salt,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  sugar.  Have  the  cabbage  fresh  and  shredded 
very  fine.  Have  the  vinegar  cold.  \  ^  ._ 

Cabbage  Salad— Cream  Dressing  No.  2  (page  286). 

Prepare  the  cabbage  the  same  as  for  cold  slaw,  and 
keep  out  some  of  the  finest  and  lorrgest  pieces  for  gar- 
nish. Have  the  cream  dressing  very  cold,  and  season  to 
taste  with  the  mixed  seasoning  given  for  cold  slaw. 

Potato  Salad — Home  Work. 

Slice  plain  boiled  potatoes  very  thin.  For  each  cup  of 
potato  used,  mince  one  tablespoonful  of  onion  (very  fine) 
or  grate  it ;  use  also  one  tablespoonful  of  capers,  or  pick- 
les, and  one-half  tablespoonful  of  parsley,  each  minced 
very  fine.  To  each  cup  of  dressing  used,  add  one  table- 
spoonful  of  vinegar  and  one-half  cup  of  thin  cream.  Mix 
with  the  dressing  one  and  one-fourth  level  teaspoonfuls  of 
mixed  seasoning  and  the  chopped  materials  before  men- 
tioned. Put  a  few  of  the  sliced  potatoes  in  a  bowl,  add 
some  dressing,  and  mix  carefully  by  lifting  with  two  sil- 
ver forks  to  prevent  mushing  the  potatoes.  Continue  in. 
the  same  way  until  all  are  in.  Garnish  potato  salad  with 
parsley. 

Potato  Salad— Class  Work. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  dressing,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
cream,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  chopped  parsley,  one  drop 
of  onion  juice,  six  capers,  one  teaspoonful  of  mixed  sea- 
soning. The  above  is  practically  one-fourth  of  a  cup. 

Hot  Potato  Salad. 

Some  prefer  to  mix  the  salad  while  the  potatoes  are 
hot.  The  flavor  is  somewhat  different  when  thus  made, 
and  the  salad  may  be  served  cold  or  hot. 


292  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Beet  Salad. 

Prepare  the  dressing  as  for  potato  salad,  except  leave 
out  the  onion  juice  and  capers.  Cut  cold  boiled  beets 
into  small  cubes  (one-fourth  of  an  inch)  and  mix  with 
the  dressing. 

Potato  and  Beet  Salad. 

Prepare  the  beets  and  dress  as  for  plain  salad.  Cut  cold 
boiled  potatoes  in  dice  same  as  beets,  dress  with  salad 
dressing.  Serve  on  the  salad  plates,  first  some  of  the  po- 
tato salad,  then  some  of  the  beet  salad  on  the  potato 
salad,  using  about  one-half  as  much  beet  as  potato.  Gar- 
nish with  watercress. 

Cucumber  Salad. 

Cucumbers  should  always  be  very  cold  and  crisp  when 
eaten,  and  may  be  dressed  simply  with  salt  and  pepper 
and  vinegar,  or  with  a  French  dressing,  or  with  a  sour 
cream  dressing,  made  in  the  following  manner :  Make  a 
white  sauce  as  for  plain  cream  dressing,  and  add  to  it 
an  equal  portion  of  sour  cream.  To  each  three-fourths  of 
a  cup  of  the  mixture,  add  one  level  teaspoonful  of  the 
mixed  seasoning  and  one  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  or  put  in 
salt  until  you  can  taste  it  a  little  in  the  vinegar,  then  add 
pepper  to  taste. 

Lettuce  Salad — Tarragon  Dressing. 

Make  a  French  dressing  (page  286),  using  tarragon 
vinegar  instead  of  plain  vinegar. 

Lettuce  Salad — Chervil  Dressing. 

Simply  make  a  French  dressing,  using  chervil  vinegar. 
Chervil  vinegar  and  tarragon  vinegar  are  made  by  soak- 
ing chervil  or  tarragon  in  common  vinegar  in  a  closed 
vessel  for  a  few  days. 

Lettuce  Salad — French  Dressing. 

Lettuce  should  be  gathered  fresh  just  before  using, 
carefully  washed  to  prevent  breaking  the  leaves,  and  the 


SALADS   AND   GARNISHES.  293 

water  shaken  off  before  setting  away  for  the  short  time 
before  serving.  It  may  be  dressed  with  a  French  dress- 
ing prepared  as  on  page  286.  In  this  case,  prepare  the 
dressing,  and  dress  the  lettuce  at  the  table. 

Lettuce  Salad. 

Make  a  cooked  salad  dressing  as  on  page  285.  Use 
equal  parts  of  the  cold  dressing  and  whipped  cream. 
Mix  them  well,  and  season  with  the  mixed  seasoning, 
page  287.  Use  one  level  teaspoonful  to  three-fourths  of 
a  cup. 

Watercress  Salad. 

Prepare  and  dress  same  as  lettuce. 

Endive  Salad. 

Prepare  and  dress  same  as  lettuce. 

Celery  Salad. 

Use  perfectly  white  and  tender  celery,  and  wash  the 
stalks  very  clean.  Cut  in  one-fourth  inch  lengths,  and  if 
large,  cut  across.  Use  the  regular  mayonnaise  dressing 
(page  285),  and  to  each  one-fourth  of  a  cup  add  one 
level  teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasoning  (page  287).  Put 
the  dressing  on  the  last  minute  possible,  because  the 
dressing  draws  the  juice  from  the  celery,  and  becomes 
watery. 

Celery  and  Nut  Salad. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  use  one-third  as  much 
English  walnuts,  cut  fine  and  mixed  with  the  dressing,  as 
you  have  of  the  celery. 

Egg  Salad. 

Cut  the  whites  of  hard-boiled  eggs  in  dice,  and  care- 
fuly  break  up  the  yolks.  Make  a  cooked  dressing,  using 
tarragon  vinegar  (page  285).  Season  the  dressing  with 
the  mixed  seasoning  No.  I  (page  287),  and  to  each  cup 
of  dressing  used  add  one  tablespoonful  of  chopped  capers, 
one  of-  chopped  pickles,  and  one  of  finely-minced  parsley. 


294  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Mix  the  whites  and  the  yolks  gently,  then  put  a  layer  of 
the  eggs  in  a  bowl,  put  on  some  dressing,  and  mix 
carefully,  put  on  another  in  the  same  way,  and  so  con- 
tinue until  all  is  used.  Serve  on  a  lettuce  leaf. 

Salmon  and  Celery  Salad — Class  Rule. 

One  tablespoonful  of  salmon  and  one  tablespoonful  of 
celery  cut  into  small  dice.  Dress  with  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  the  tomato  dressing,  page  287. 

Salmon  and  Celery  Salad — Home  Rule. 

Prepare  the  salmon  as  for  salmon  and  tomato  salad. 
Select  fresh  crisp  celery,  and  cut  in  dice  about  the  same 
size  of  the  salmon.  Use  an  equal  amount  of  salmon  and 
celery.  Mix  with  cooked  tomato  dressing.  To  one  pint 
can  of  salmon  and  the  same  amount  of  celery  use  two 
cups  of  the  tomato  dressing,  seasoned  with  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  mixed  seasoning  No.  3.  Serve  cold  on  a  lettuce 
leaf  on  a  cold  plate. 

Salmon  Salad,  Garnished  with  Hard-Boiled  Eggs. 

Prepare  a  pint  can  of  salmon  as  for  salmon  and  celery 
salad,  and  mix  with  one  cup  of  tomato  dressing,  seasoned 
with  one  teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasoning  No.  I.  Mix 
the  salmon  and  dressing  lightly,  not  to  mush  the  fish,  put 
on  a  platter,  and  garnish  with  thin  slices  of  hard-boiled 
eggs. 

Salmon  and  Tomato  Salad — Class  Rule. 

Use  two  tablespoonfuls  of  diced  salmon,  dress  with 
plain  cooked  dressing,  season  with  mixed  seasoning  No. 
3.  Put  the  diced  salmon  on  a  lettuce  leaf  on  a  cold  plate. 
On  the  salmon  lay  bits  of  ripe  tomato,  and  on  this  drop  a 
tablespoonful  of  the  dressing.  Use  one  level  teaspoon- 
ful of  mixed  seasoning  No.  3  to  every  cup  of  the  dressing. 
This  is  the  general  rule  for  all  salads  when  mixed  season- 
ing is  used  in  cooked  dressing. 


SALADS  AND  GARNISHES.  295 

Salmon  and  Tomato  Salad — Home  Eule. 

Drain  the  oil  from  one  pint  can  of  salmon  and  remove 
the  bone,  and  cut  salmon  into  dice.  Place  on  lettuce 
leaves  as  in  class  rule,  garnish  with  the  bits  of  tomato, 
and  put  on  the  salad  dressing.  One  cup  of  the  dressing 
seasoned  with  one  teaspoonful  of  mixed  seasoning  No.  3, 
will  dress  the  salmon  from  a  pint  can. 

Salmon  Salad. 

Pick  the  fish  up  into  small  pieces  and  mix  with  one- 
third  as  much  hard-boiled  egg  as  there  is  fish.  Season 
highly  a  cup  of  oil  mayonnaise  dressing.  Put  a  layer  of 
the  fish  and  egg  mixed  in  the  bowl,  and  put  on  dressing, 
mix  lightly  with  two  silver  forks  to  prevent  mushing, 
put  on  more  fish  and  dressing  and  mix  in  the  same  way 
until  all  is  used.  Serve  on  a  lettuce  leaf  on  a  cold  plate. 
Chopped  watercress  may  be  mixed  with  the  dressing.  The 
cooked  mayonnaise  may  be  used  with  a  fish  salad,  but  is  not 
nearly  so  good.  Cream  dressing  No.  2  (page  286)  may 
also  be  used  with  salmon  salad,  using  lemon  juice  instead 
of  vinegar  in  making  the  dressing. 

Lobster  Salad. 

Make  in  same  way  as  salmon  salad,  except  use  lobster 
instead  of  salmon.  A  little  mustard  in  a  lobster  salad  is 
beneficial. 

Shrimp  Salad. 

Make  same  as  lobster  salad. 

Roast  Beef  Salad. 

Use  cooked  mayonnaise  dressing  for  this  salad.  Cut 
well-done  roast  beef  into  small  cubes.  Mix  with  it  an 
equal  amount  of  crisp  white  celery  cut  in  small  pieces. 
Use  mixed  seasoning  No.  3  to  make  highly  seasoned,  and 
to  each  cup  of  dressing  used  add  one  tablespoonful  of 
chopped  pickles,  one  of  capers,  and  one  of  parsley,  finely 
minced. 


296  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Chicken  Salad. 

Cut  into  dice,  free  from  coarse  pieces,  four  cups  of 
chicken  (boiled  is  best).  Put  the  prepared  chicken  into  a 
bowl,  and  pour  over  it  one-half  a  cup  of  French  dressing 
(seasoned),  mix  with  two  silver  forks,  set  in  a  cool  place 
for  an  hour,  then  drain,  and  mix  with  it  two  cups  of  ten- 
der white  celery,  cut  into  pieces  a  little  smaller  than  the 
chicken.  Mix  well  together  and  add  one  cup  of  seasoned 
dressing,  one-third  cooked  mayonnaise  and  two-thirds  oil 
dressing.  To  each  cup  of  dressing  add  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  mixed  seasoning,  and  also  one  tablespoonful  of  chop- 
ped olives,  and  the  same  of  capers,  if  desired. 

Sweetbread  Salad. 

Cook  the  sweetbreads  in  slightly  salted  water,  after 
they  have  been  soaked  in  salt  water  until  clean.  When 
they  can  easily  be  pierced  with  a  toothpick,  cool  in  the 
water  in  which  they  were  cooked.  Then  tear  in  pieces  and 
let  stand  in  vinegar  twenty  minutes,  and  mix  with  cucum- 
bers or  celery  which  have  been  prepared  and  left  on  ice  for 
some  time.  Use  one-third  as  much  cucumber  or  celery  as 
sweetbreads,  and  dress  with  a  French  dressing  which  con- 
sists of  three  parts  oil  to  one  part  vinegar,  and  is  sea- 
soned well  with  salt  and  pepper.  Serve  cold  on  cold- 
plates. 

Currant  and  Red  Raspberry  Salad. 

Currants  and  raspberries  mixed  in  equal  parts  are  very 
acceptable  with  no  dressing  but  sugar.  Serve  with  the 
meat  course. 

Apple  Salad  No.  1. 

Make  cream  dressing  No.  2  and  season  to  taste  with 
the  following  mixture :  Two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar, 
one  level  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Use  very  tart  and  mellow 
apples.  Pare  them  after  the  dressing  is  seasoned,  and 
quarter  and  core  them,  cut  each  eighth  in  very  thin 
slices,  and  stir  into  the  dressing  at  once  to  prevent  turn- 


SALADS   AND   GARNISHES.  297 

ing  dark  by  contact  with  the  air.    Serve  on  a  lettuce  leaf, 
or  garnish  with  watercress. 

Apple  Salad  No.  2. 

Make  a  cooked  salad  dressing  as  on  page  285.  Have 
the  dressing  perfectly  cold  and  mix  with  it  an  equal 
amount  of  whipped  cream,  and  season  with  the  mixture  of 
salt  and  sugar  as  in  No.  I .  Much  depends  on  the  tartness, 
mellowness,  and  pleasant  flavor  of  the  apple,  as  the  sea- 
sonings are  very  delicate. 

Apple  and  Nut  Salad. 

Make  same  as  either  No.  I  or  No.  2,  and  use  half  as 
much  nuts  (English  walnuts)  as  apples.  A  little  lemon 
juice  or  orange  juice  may  be  used  to  advantage  if  the 
apples  are  poor. 

Mixed  Fruit  Salads  No.  1- 

Mix  oranges,  bananas,  and  white  grapes  in  equal  parts, 
cover  with  sweetened  lemon  juice,  and  stiffen  with  gela- 
tine. 

Mixed  Fruit  Salad  No,  2. 

Mix  grapes  and  pineapple,  cover  with  lemon  juice  and 
water  mixed  as  for  lemonade,  sweeten,  and  stiffen  with 
gelatine. 

Orange  and  Grape  Salad. 

Use  Malaga  grapes.  Cut  in  two  in  the  center,  and  re- 
move the  seeds.  Peel  the  oranges,  divide  into  sections, 
and  remove  the  thin  outer  skin.  Intersperse  oranges 
and  grapes  in  the  dish,  and  pour  over  them  a  liquid  pre- 
pared the  same  as  for  banana  salad,  except  add  more 
sugar  if  acid  oranges  are  used.  Harden  same  as  banana 
salad.  In  making  fruit  salads  in  this  way,  put  in  a  por- 
tion of  fruit,  and  cover  it  with  the  liquid,  allow  this  to  be- 
come thick,  but  not  solid,  then  add  more  fruit,  and  more 
of  the  .liquid,  until  the  materials  are  all  used. 


298  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

Banana  Salad. 

Three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  lemon  juice,  one  and  one- 
half  cups  of  sugar,  two  and  one- fourth  cups  of  water,  one- 
fourth  box  of  phosphate  gelatine.  Put  the  gelatine  to 
soak  in  one-fourth  cup  of  the  water.  When  the  gelatine  is 
soft,  pour  in  the  two  cups  of  hot  water,  and  add  the  su- 
gar and  lemon  juice,  then  strain.  Peel  and  slice  the 
bananas  into  a  serving  dish,  pour  the  gelatine  over  them, 
and  set  away  in  a  cool  place  to  harden.  Put  on  cold  plates 
when  served. 

Banana  Salad— Glass  Rule, 

One-third  teaspoonful  of  gelatine,  if  granulated  gela- 
tine is  used.  Soak  gelatine  in  one  tablespoonful  of  cold 
water.  When  soft,  set  in  hot  water  and  stir  until  dis- 
solved, then  add  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  and  five 
tablespoonfuls  of  water  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon 
juice.  Stir  until  sugar  is  dissolved,  then  slice  full  of 
bananas  and  set  away  to  cool.  Serve  on  cold  plates. 

GARNISHES  FOR  FOOD. 

The  material  used  for  decorating  a  dish  may  be  cooked 
or  raw.  The  decorations  may  be  very  simple,  or  more 
elaborate.  In  order  that  any  garnish  fulfill  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended,  it  must  be  of  such  color,  or  com- 
bination of  colors,  as  will  give  the  most  pleasing  effect 
with  the  dish  to  be  garnished.  Not  only  this,  but  let  it 
be  something  which  can  be  eaten  with  the  dish  if  desired. 

Parsley  is  much  used  as  a  garnish.  The  curly  variety 
is  most  desirable.  Chervil  also  makes  a  very  desirable 
garnish.  It  has  a  pleasant  flavor,  a  delicate  scent,  and  a 
beautiful  foliage.  The  pimpernel  is  also  nice  when  pro- 
curable. It  has  a  dark  green  color,  and  resembles  the  fern 
somewhat  in  general  makeup,  or  appearance.  The  odor  is 
something  like  that  of  a  cucumber. 

The  beautiful,  delicate  young  leaves  of  celery,  with  the 
white  stems  slit  and  curled  in  ice  water,  make  a  fine 


SALADS  AND  GARNISHES.  299 

garnish.  Spearmint  makes  a  pretty  and  appropriate  gar- 
nish for  roast  lamb.  Fruit  tree  leaves,  geranium  leaves, 
or  autumn  leaves  are  appropriately  used  in  garnishing 
a  dish  of  fruit.  The  ice  plant  is  considered  especially 
nice  for  such  garniture. 

Turnips  of  medium  size  may  be  scooped  and  the  shells 
cooked,  but  not  enough  to  fall  to  pieces,  and  used  as  cups 
for  serving  peas.  Cups,  roses,  etc.,  may  be  made  of 
mashed  potatoes  by  using  the  pastry  bag. 

The  garnishes  which  may  be  made  by  cutting  cooked 
vegetables,  hard  boiled  eggs,  etc.,  into  various  shapes,  are 
many.  Jellies  molded  in  various  shapes  are  also  fre- 
quently used.  Whipped  cream  makes  a  pleasing  and  ap- 
propriate garnish  for  many  desserts. 

Cottage  cheese  balls,  olives,  capers,  and  pimolas  are 
often  used  in  garnishing  chicken  salad. 

References:  Food  Products  of  the  World — Green — pp.  205- 
215;  Minn.  Exp.  Station  Bulletin  No.  54,  p.  59;  Art  of  Cook- 
ery— Ewing — p.  315;  Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  440-442; 
Elements  of  Cookery— Williams  &  Fisher— p.  255;  Boston  Cool? 
ing  School  Cook  Book — Farmer,  pp.  287-288. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

MARKETING— CARE   OF    FOODS. 

The  selection  of  fresh  meats,  vegetables,  and  fruits  in 
the  city  markets  has  most  importance  for  city  people. 
Farmers  who  supply  these  foods  need  to  know  at  what 
points  and  characteristics  the  city  housewife  looks,  that 
they  may  so  prepare  these  foods  as  to  please  her  eye. 
Only  general  statements  can  be  written  out.  The  woman 
who  regularly  visits  the  markets  learns  by  practice  the 
art  of  selecting  these  foods.  The  teacher  of  cookery  can 
teach  her  pupils  far  more  by  practical  illustrations  than 
by  written  or  spoken  statements  without  the  objects  for 
illustration.  Farmers  get  choke  fresh,  foods  for  the  bare 
expense  of  producing  them,  with  no  charges  from  trans- 
portation company,  commission  man,  or  merchant.  The 
farmers'  selection  of  choice  foods  for  their  own  tables  is 
accomplished  mainly  by  extra  care  in  raising,  preparing 
and  preserving  them.  Great  progress  has  been  made  in 
facilities  and  methods  of  preserving  foods,  both  in  the 
farmers'  home  and  in  factories ;  also  in  raising  foods  of  all 
kinds. 

Farmers  may  have  the  choicest  foods  at  very  low  cost. 
The  spread  of  knowledge  of  how  to  raise  vegetables, 
fruits,  and  meats  for  home  consumption  on  the  farm  is 
one  of  the  most  important  works  being  accomplished  by 
agricultural  colleges.  A  garden  of  vegetables  and  small 
fruits  planted  in  rows,  so  as  to  be  cultivated  largely  by 
horse  power,  a  few  pigs,  a  flock  of  good  hens,  some  cows, 
and  a  few  sheep  supply  the  farmer's  table  with  the  most 
delicious  and  nutritious  foods,  at  a  cost  far  below  that 
realized  by  any  other  class  of  people  in  the  world.  We 
are  proud  of  our  country,  our  farms,  our  farmers/and  of 
the  great  men  and  women  our  farms  are  constantly  pro- 


302  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

ducing.  The  improved  feeding  of  our  farm  boys  and 
girls  which  the  teaching  of  agricultural  schools  promises 
to  bring  about  will  have  much  to  do  with  making  the 
future  generations  of  our  nation  powerful  in  physique, 
strong  in  mind,  and  pure  in  heart.  A  few  of  the  leading 
thoughts  used  in  teaching  city  people  how  to  select  foods 
in  the  markets  are  given  below. 

The  wise  farmer,  in  storing  food  for  the  needs  of  his 
stock  during  the  winter,  plans  to  have  no  waste  by  fur- 
nishing food  in  wrong  quantities  or  proportions.  The 
animals  must  thrive,  and  the  food  must  give  the  requisite 
amount  of  heat-giving,  muscle-forming,  and  energy-pro- 
ducing nourishment.  The  housewife,  in  solving  the  food 
question,  in  relation  to  her  family,  must  consider  the 
same  things,  and  some  others  in  addition  to  these.  She 
may  know  that  nearly  one-half  of  the  body  is  made  up 
of  muscle,  which  is  one-fifth  proteid,  and  that  this, 
whether  working  proteid  or  idle  proteid,  can  be  built  up 
only  by  furnishing  proteid  substance.  She  may  under- 
stand that  a  certain  amount  of  carbohydrates  is  necessary 
to  furnish  the  energy  needed  by  the  body,  and  a  sufficiency 
of  carbohydrates  and  fats  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body, 
yet  if  she  does  not  know  how  "to  make  the  mouth  water/' 
her  family  will  not  relish  plain  food.  Among  the  many 
things  which  cannot  be  classified  merely  as  working  con- 
stituents of  the  food,  but  which  are  nevertheless  neces- 
sary, are  green  vegetables,  flavoring  materials,  and  fresh 
ripe  fruits.  Everything  used  in  the  well-regulated  home 
as  relish,  from  the  sprig  of  parsley  to  the  fresh  ripe  straw- 
berry, has  a  place  to  fill,  and  the  consumer  never  ques- 
tions whether  the  cellulose  of  the  parsley  aids  perceptibly 
in  giving  bulk  to  his  food,  nor  whether  the  volatile  oil  to 
which  the  strawberry  owes  a  part  of  its  pleasant  flavor 
aids  any  in  the  carbohydrate  effect  of  the  food  eaten.  No 
amount  of  skill  can  bring  back  to  an  overripe  fruit  the  fine 
flavor  which  it  possessed  when  nature  pronounced  it  fin- 
ished. Excessive  use  of  spices  and  condiments  may  in 


MARKETING.  303 

some  measure  conceal  the  defects  of  an  unsavory  soup,  but 
they  cannot  remove  them.  The  most  palatable  soup  can 
only  be  made  by  using  meats  and  vegetables  possessing  a 
good  flavor.  A  knowledge  of  marketing  will  enable  one 
to  have  the  best  that  the  locality  affords,  not  only  as  to 
the  amount  and  proportions  of  food  constituents,  but  as  to 
palatability  also.  Fresh  fruit  and  crisp  green  vegetables 
will  aid  in  giving  a  finished  aspect  to  a  plain  dinner,  and 
pleasant  sensations  to  a  hungry  person. 

To  Select  Beef. 

Meat  from  mature  and  well-fattened  cattle  has  a  better 
flavor,  and  loses  less  of  its  weight  when  cooked,  than  that 
from  younger  beef  animals.  Good  beef  has  a  dark  red 
color  when  first  cut,  which  changes  to  cherry  red  after 
a  few  minutes'  exposure  to  the  air.  It  looks  juicy,  is  fine 
grained,  is  elastic  to  the  touch,  and  the  lean  is  finely  mar- 
bled with  dots  of  fat.  A  very  dark  color  indicates  an  old 
animal ;  a  pale,  moist  muscle,  a  very  young  one ;  and  a 
bluish  or  dark  red  color,  poor  beef.  The  meat  from  the 
central  and  posterior  parts  of  the  back  is  generally  con- 
sidered the  most  choice,  and  consequently  commands  the 
highest  price,  for  agreeableness  to  the  palate  is  a  large  fac- 
tor in  the  current  demand  and  market  price.  There  is, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  no  more  muscle-forming  material  in  an 
ounce  of  protein  from  the  tenderloin  of  beef  than  in  an 
ounce  from  the  round  or  shoulder.  The  fore  quarter  of  a 
beef  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  bone  to  meat  than  the 
hind  quarter,  and  is  less  tender,  but  it  is  quite  equal  in 
flavor  and  juiciness.  The  choicest  steak  is  the  porter- 
house, cut  from  the  loin  of  an  animal  where  the  tenderloin 
is  largest.  It  contains  both  tenderloin  and  sirloin,  sepa- 
rated by  a  small  bone,  and  is  frequently  called  pin-bone 
steak.  Further  back  the  pin-bone  centers  in  a  cross-bone 
at  the  top,  and  a  cut  from  there  is  often  called  a  T-bone 
steak.  Steaks  cut  forward  from  the  porterhouse  steaks 
have  no  separating  bone  in  them,  but  are  nevertheless 
called, porterhouse  steaks  at  many  markets,  and  are  some- 


304  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

times  offered  to  unsuspecting  purchasers  when  cut  so  far 
forward  that  there  is  no  semblance  of  tenderloin  about 
them.  When  the  pin-bone  or  T-bone  is  removed  from  a 
porterhouse  steak,  and  the  two  parts  separated,  they  are 
known  as  tenderloin  and  sirloin  steaks,  respectively.  The 
upper  part  of  the  round  is  used  for  steaks,  and  as 
seen  on  the  block  it  appears  as  one  large  muscle,  and  not 
several  muscles,  as  in  that  case  it  is  from  farther  down 
the  round  and  is  more  apt  to  be  tough.  There  are  a  few 
cuts  of  round  which  are  very  choice.  These  can  be  easily 
distinguished  by  the  appearance  of  the  bone.  The  marrow 
stands  out  very  distinctly  and  has  a  pinkish  hue.  Round 
steak  is  more  difficult  to  broil  successfully  than  sirloin, 
because  the  juices  are  thinner,  and  escape  more  readily. 
To  choose  a  roast  of  beef  which  will  have  the  best  flavor, 
be  tender  and  easily  cooked,  select  a  porterhouse,  a  sirloin 
or  a  choice  cut  of  ribs.  The  muscle  fibres  in  such  cuts  are 
so  bound  together  as  to  make  their  mechanical  subdivision 
easy,  with  little  time  and  skill  in  cooking.  Such  cuts  ap- 
pear to  be  composed  largely  of  a  part  of  one  or  two  large 
muscles,  and  there  is  consequently  less  connective  tissue 
than  in  a  cut  composed  of  parts  of  several  small  muscles. 
If  you  wish  a  roast  equally  nutritious  when  intelligently 
and  skillfully  prepared,  choose  a  so-called  cheap  or  tough 
piece  of  meat,  a  roast  from  the  chuck  ribs  or  a  piece  from 
the  round.  The  back  of  the  rump  makes  a  nice  roast,  but 
it  often  has  part  of  the  backbone  and  sometimes  the  rump 
bone  in  it,  and  is  consequently  not  very  economical.  The 
smaller  or  front  end  nearest  the  loin  has  the  most  tender 
meat.  The  part  between  these  two  is  not  so  tender. 

To  Select  Veal. 

Milk-fed  calves  that  are  from  six  to  eight  weeks  old 
make  the  best  veal.  The  fat  about  the  kidneys  in  such  veal 
is  white,  and  the  muscles  are  a  delicate  flesh  color,  and 
firm.  The  hind  quarter  is  the  choicest,  and  is  a  little 
higher  in  price  than  the  fore  quarter.  The  loin  makes  the 


MARKETING.  305 

finest  chops.     Cutlets  are  usually  taken  from  the  legs. 
The  fillet  also  comes  from  the  legs. 

To  Select  Mutton. 

The  best  mutton  is  abundant  in  fat,  which  is  white, 
clear,  and  solid.  The  leg  bones  are  white,  and  the  scored 
flesh  on  the  forequarter  is  red,  and  the  lean  meat  juicy, 
firm,  and  of  a  dark  red  color. 

In  selecting  lamb,  choose  that  which  has  a  thick  back, 
on  which  the  fat  is  white.  The  kidney  fat  should  be  white 
also.  A  thick  back  indicates  nice  chops,  and  if  they  are 
good,  other  parts  are  more  likely  to  be  so.  The  bones  of 
lamb  should  have  a  pinkish  hue. 

To  Select  Pork. 

The  lean  of  the  best  fresh  pork  is  of  a  delicate  red  color, 
juicy,  firm,  and  fine  grained.  The  fat  is  white,  and  the 
skin  thin.  A  thick  skin  indicates  an  old  animal. 

To  Select  Hams. 

Medium-sized  hams  weighing  from  ten  to  twelve 
pounds  are  usually  the  best.  Hams  should  be  plump  and 
round,  with  short  tapering  shanks,  and  small  bones.  The 
fat  should  be  white  and  firm  and  the  skin  thin  and  un- 
wrinkled. 

To  Select  Poultry. 

A  moderate  sized  turkey  is  more  apt  to  be  young  than 
a  larger  one.  A  hen  is  preferable  to  a  gobler  because 
usually  plumper,  and  more  delicate  in  flavor.  The  legs 
of  a  turkey  should  be  dark  and  smooth,  and  the  breast 
bone  soft  and  pliable,  as  tough  skin,  rough  legs,  and  a 
firm  breast-bone  indicate  an  old  turkey.  When  turkeys 
or  other  fowls  are  fresh,  the  eyes  are  bright  and  full,  and 
the  feet  and  legs  limber.  The  breast  of  a  goose  should 
be  plump  and  white,  and  the  feet  yellow  and  flexible. 
Capons  are  the  greatest  delicacies  known  in  the  chicken 
line.  They  retain  the  tenderness  of  young  chickens,  and 
have  the  size  and  flavor  of  mature  fowls.  The  price  of 


306  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

capons  depends  upon  quality, — from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
five  cents  a  pound.  The  usual  weight  is  from  eight  to  ten 
pounds,  but  extra  lots  weigh  twelve  to  fourteen  pounds. 
Capons  are  usually  dry  picked,  leaving  the  "ruff"  (the 
long  feathers  on  the  neck),  tail  and  wing  quills,  and  thigh 
feathers ;  in  fact,  about  all  the  picking  done  is  to  take  the 
small  feathers  from  the  breast  and  body.  Poultry  for 
market  is  not  drawn,  but  if  must  be  kept  without  food  for 
twenty-four  hours  before  killing,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
food  left  in  the  crop,  or  the  fowl  will  be  apt  to  become 
tainted  after  lying  awhile. 

A  hen  over  a  year  old  will  not  roast  satisfactorily. 
When  buying  a  chicken  for  roasting,  try  the  breast-bone. 
If  the  chicken  is  young  the  tip  of  the  bone  will  be  cartil- 
aginous still,  and  can  be  easily  bent.  See  that  it  is  not 
merely  broken.  An  older  hen  is  better  stewed  than 
roasted.  If  it  is  roasted  at  all,  it  must  be  first  steamed 
until  tender.  This,  of  course,  draws  out  the  juices  some- 
what, thus  giving  it  something  of  the  flavor  of  a  boiled 
fowl. 

To  Select  Eggs. 

Eggs  should  have  fresh-looking,  not  shiny,  shells.  If 
lifted  in  the  hand,  they  should  feel  comparatively  heavy. 
There  is  where  farmers  have  the  greatest  advantage. 
Eggs  are  selected  fresh  for  them  daily. 

To  Select  Fish. 

In  selecting*  fish,  choose  those  with  firm,  stiff  fins,  red 
gills,  and  full,  clear  eyes. 

To  Select  Butter. 

Choose  butter  by  its  fresh  odor,  freedom  from  butter- 
milk and  streaks  of  color,  and  see  that  the  flavor  is  good. 

To  Select  Berries  and  Fruits. 

A  dry  surface  is  a  pretty  sure  indication  of  freshness 
in  strawberries,  raspberries,  and  blackberries.  It  is  wise 
to  pour  a  portion  of  the  berries  from  the  box  into  the 


MARKETING.  307 

hand,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  quality  is  the  same 
throughout.  Plumpness,  brightness  of  skin,  and  freedom 
from  spots  of  decay  are  the  most  reliable  indications  of 
freshness  in  such  fruits  as  apples,  peaches,  plums,  cherries, 
grapes,  etc. 

To  Select  Macaroni 

Macaroni  should  break  with  a  clean,  glassy  surface, 
and  should  not  be  too  white.  A  white  appearance  indi- 
cates that  the  flour  from  which  the  macaroni  was  made 
contained  a  large  proportion  of  starch  and  little  protein. 

To  Select  Vegetables,  etc. 

All  vegetables  should  be  unwilted,  and  if  there  are 
leaves  with  them,  these  should  be  crisp.  The  best  potatoes 
have  smooth,  unbroken  skins,  and  should  be  comparatively 
heavy.  Potatoes,  carrots,  parsnips,  etc.,  of  medium  size, 
are  better  than  very  large  ones,  as  large  ones  are  apt  to 
be  coarse  and  less  delicate.  Corn  and  peas  deteriorate  in 
flavor  very  rapidly,  and  are  at  their  best  very  soon  after 
gathering.  The  Spanish  onion,  a  large  white  onion,  is 
very  mild  in  flavor.  Select  all  onions  same  as  other  vege- 
tables. They  should  be  plump,  and  not  too  large.  Cabbage 
heads  should  be  solid,  heavy  and  unwilted.  The  heads  of 
cauliflower  should  be  close,  or  solid,  the  leaves  green  and 
fresh-looking,  and  the  flowers  creamy  white. 

To  Select  Cereals. 

Cereals  should  be  free  from  insects,  and  have  a  fresh 
odor.  The  best  rice  has  large  grains,  and  very  few  brok- 
en ones. 

To  Select  Dry  Beans. 

Dry  beans,  like  dried  fruit,  should  be  fresh,  to  give  the 
best  flavor.  The  white  navy  bean  is  the  most  desirable, 
as  the  larger  white  beans  are  coarser  and  less  delicate  in 
flavor.  Dark  beans,  as  red,  black,  etc.,  are  less  delicate 
than  white  beans.  Dried  lima  beans  can  be  obtained  on 
tKe  market,  and  are  much  cheaper,  and  nearly  as  good,  as 
the  canned  beans. 


308  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

To  Select  Dried  Fruit. 

Dried  fruit  should  be  free  from  insects,  have  a  bright 
skin,  and  a  pleasant  odor.  Evaporated  apples  and  pears 
should  be  free  from  cores,  and  not  too  white,  as  this  some- 
times indicates  excessive  bleaching,  and  consequent  con- 
tamination with  sulphur. 
Object  of  Sulphuring  Apples, 

Extracts  from  Bulletin  No.  48,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Division  of  Chemistry : 

"By  reason  of  the  oxidizing  effects  of  the  air,  the 
freshly-cut  surfaces  of  the  apples  soon  turn  brown.  The 
sulphuring  prevents  this,  and  preserves  the  natural  color 
of  the  fruit  for  a  considerable  period  when  exposed  to  the 
air. 

"It  might  be  supposed  that  the  sulphuring  of  the  whole 
apples  before  slicing  would  not  be  sufficient  to  preserve 
the  fresh  color  of  the  surfaces  after  slicing.  The  time  of 
exposure  does  not  usually  exceed  half  an  hour.  Expe- 
rience shows  that  this  is  quite  sufficient  to  preserve  the 
fresh  color  of  the  surface  after  slicing  and  to  prevent  them 
becoming  dark  during  the  process  of  evaporation.  The 
quantity  of  sulphurous  acid  which  is  absorbed  is  not 
sufficient  in  any  way  to  impair  the  flavor  of  the  fruit. 

"While  it  is  evident  that  the  process  of  sulphuring 
is  in  no  sense  a  sterilizing  proceeding,  yet  it  seems  suffi- 
cient to  prevent  insects  depositing  their  eggs  upon  the 
evaporated  slices  to  at  least  a  certain  extent.  Neverthe- 
less insects  have  been  found  in  some  of  the  slices  collected 
for  analysis.  As  a  further  protection  against  insects  in 
dried  fruits,  Hilgard  states  that  the  sulphuring  is  some- 
times repeated  after  evaporation.  This  process  is  to  be 
condemned  becauses  the  dried  fruit  retains  more  per- 
sistently the  sulphurous  acid,  which  affects  its  flavor 
very  seriously. 

"The  consumer  has  reason  to  object  to  the  sulphuring 
of  the  dried  fruit  for  two  reasons,  one  of  which  is  that  the 
ill-prepared  or  damaged  fruit,  which  otherwise  could  not 


CARE  OP  POODS.  309 

be  sold,  is  bleached  and  made  presentable  in  the  market, 
and,  second,  that  the  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  either  seriously 
impaired  or  totally  destroyed.  Such  sulphured  fruit  con- 
tains also  considerable  quantities  of  the  sulphurous  acid, 
the  excessive  consumption  of  which  may  impair  digestion 
and  affect  the  health  of  the  consumer. 

"It  is  probable  that  the  zinc  contained  in  evaporated 
apples  exists  entirely  in  the  form  of  organic  salts  the  most 
abundant  of  which  is  zinc  malate.  All  writers  on  toxi- 
cology agree  that  in  certain  quantities  zinc  salts  exercise  a 
poisonous  effect,  while  the  continued  administration  of 
zinc  salts  in  smaller  quantities  has  not  been  known  to 
produce  any  very  decided  disturbance  of  the  physiological 
functions  of  the  body.  Yet  the  continued  administration 
of  zinc  salts,  even  in  minute  doses,  cannot  be  recom- 
mended. All  authorities  agree  that,  even  if  zinc  be  re- 
garded as  poisonous,  it  is  decidedly  less  so  than  lead  and 
copper. 

"The  continued  use  of  bodies  that  are  not  distinctly 
poisonous,  but  which  are  foreign  to  the  natural  constitu- 
ents of  the  system,  may  finally  produce  derangement  of 
the  health,  and  for  this  reason  the  manufacturers  of  evap- 
orated fruits  in  this  country  should  pursue  such  processes 
as  would  exclude  even  the  traces  of  zinc  above  mentioned. 
The  zinc  in  evaporated  apples  comes  from  the  galvanized 
iron  wire  cloth  used  in  making  the  trays  on  which  they 
are  evaporated/' 

CARE  OF  FOODS. 

Canned  goods  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dark  place. 
Preserved  goods,  as  jellies,  jams,  etc.,  should  be  covered 
with  paraffine  or  with  paper  to  keep  out  dust  and  mold, 
and  are  better  kept  cool  and  dry.  Pickles  keep  better 

References:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin 
No.  13,  pt.  7,  pp.  908,  920,  926,  927;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  of 
Chemistry,  Bulletin  No.  48,  pp.  9,  35,  36;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  122,  pp.  22,  23;Wyo.  Exp.  Station  Bul- 
letin No.  33,  pp.  82-84. 


310  HOUSEHOLD   SCIENCE. 

when  the  surface  of  the  liquid  is  covered  with  horserad- 
ish leaves,  and  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  tied  over  the  top. 
This  will  admit  some  air  without  the  contents  being  ex- 
posed to  dust  and  insects. 

Fresh  berries  should  be  emptied  from  the  box  into  a 
dish  presenting  a  large  surface  to  the  air,  as  a  meat  plat- 
ter, and  set  in  a  cool,  dry  place  where  the  air  circulates 
around  them.  No  fruit  should  be  crowded.  A  bunch  of 
bananas  should  be  hung.  All  fruit  is  better  kept  in  a 
cool,  airy  place. 

Soup  stock,  if  to  be  kept  a  day  or  so,  should  have  the 
fat  left  intact  over  the  top,  as  this  aids  in  preserving  it. 
Eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  well-ventilated  room. 
They  will  absorb  odors  from  the  surrounding  air.  If 
broken  eggs  are  to  be  kept  in  bulk  for  a  short  time,  cover 
the  top  of  the  vessel  with  several  thicknesses  of  damp 
cloth,  or  a  tight-fitting  cover. 

Meat  in  large  pieces  should  be  hung  so  that  the  air  can 
pass  around  it,  and  of  course  kept  cool,  but  not  frozen. 
Veal  should  never  be  laid  on  a  dish,  but  always  hung,  as 
.it  deteriorates  rapidly.  Fish  should  be  cooked  as  soon  as 
possible  after  coming  into  the  house,  as  they  deteriorate 
rapidly,  and  cannot  well  be  kept  with  other  things. 
Never  pierce  meat  while  cooking,  as  you  lose  some  flavor 
that  way,  and  the  juices  which  escape  burn  readily. 

Tea,  coffee,  spices,  and  all  things  liable  to  lose  flavor 
should  be  kept  closely  covered. 

Codfish  should  be  kept  where  it  will  not  dry  out  too 
much,  and  it  should  not  be  kept  with  other  things.  Salt 
fish  and  salted  or  pickled  pork  must  be  weighted  to  keep 
it  under  the  brine,  else  it  will  have  a  bad  flavor. 

Milk  and  butter  should  be  kept  alone,  and  where  the 
air  about  them  cannot  be  contaminated  with  any  unpleas- 
ant odor. 

The  jar  in  which  yeast  is  kept  should  be  sterilized  at 
least  once  a  week.  The  bread  box  should  be  scalded  and 
sunned  every  baking  day. 


CARE  OP  POODS.  311 

If  dried  fruits  are  to  be  kept  over  summer,  they  should 
be  put  into  tin  cans  early,  before  insects  are  about,  and 
a  cloth  pasted  closely  over  where  the  cover  meets  the  side 
of  the  can.  All  left-overs  should  be  used  as  soon  as 
possible.  Cereals  should  be  kept  in  glass  or  tin  recep- 
tacles with  tightly-fitting  covers.  Keep  molasses  in  a  cool 
place  during  the  summer.  If  vegetables  are  kept  in  the 
cellar,  have  tight  partitions,  without  a  door,  between  them 
and  the  milk  room. 

To  keep  an  angel  cake  a  few  days,  let  it  stand  in  the 
pan,  as  it  dries  out  less  rapidly.  Butter  cakes  stay  fresh 
much  longer  when  frosted.  Flour  must  be  kept  cool  and 
dry,  as  well  as  away  from  insects.  Bread  and  cake 
should  be  kept  in  receptables  which  can  be  frequently 
washed  and  scalded.  These  must  be  close  enough  for 
cleanliness,  but  not  air-tight. 

Cheese  needs  air,  but  must  be  protected  from  all  insects. 
When  cheese  is  cut,  cover  the  cut  portion  with  oiled  paper 
before  putting  away. 

Smoked  meat  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry,  and  dark 
place,  and  must  be  protected  from  insects.  Smoked  meat 
will  keep  for  a  time  buried  in  oats,  provided  the  place 
is  well  ventilated,  dark  and  dry.  Each  piece  of  meat  may 
be  sewed  in  a  piece  of  muslin  drawn  smoothly  over  it,  and 
the  outside  whitewashed.  Meat  may  be  buried  in  ashes 
after  covering  with  paper.  It  must  be  protected  from 
insects,  and  kept  dry  to  prevent  mold. 

References:  Mechanical  Refrigeration — J.  E.  Siebel — pp. 
160-164;  Minn.  Farmers'  Inst.  Ann.  No.  9,  p.  212;  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  85,  p.  29. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


PASTES  AND  STARCH  PREPARATIONS. 

Under  this  head  we  will  consider  macaroni,  tapioca, 
etc.  Italy  has  long  been  famous  for  the  excellent  quality 
of  macaroni  produced  .there.  It  grows  a  wheat  which 
is  harder  and  more  glutenous  than  that  grown  in 


€£0 

Pastes  Used  in  Soups. 

most  countries,  though  Russia  produces  a  wheat  of  sim- 
ilar quality.  Until  recently  very  simple  machinery  was 
used,  and  the  output  for  each  factory  was  small.  At  the 
present  time,  a  single  press  can  manufacture  into  maca- 
roni ten  to  twenty  barrels  of  flour  a  day.  The  three  most 
common  forms  of  the  paste  are  macaroni,  spaghetti,  and 
vermicelli,  but  there  are,  besides  these,  many  fanciful 
forms,  and  special  small  pastes  used  in  soups.  Amer- 
ica has  good  machinery  and  skilled  labor,  but  this  soil  and 


PASTES  AND  STARCHES.  313 

climate  have  not  yet  grown  a  wheat  which  is  equal  to  that 
of  Italy  and  Russia  for  this  purpose. 

Macaroni. 

Macaroni  is  considered  an  excellent  form  of  food,  being 
both  very  wholesome  and  digestible.  When  made  of 
good  flour  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  nutriment  in 
the  form  of  starch,  protein  and  mineral  matter.  It  is  so 
dry  that  there  is  practically  no  loss  in  weight,  and  it  is 
an  economical  article  of  diet.  It  can  be  prepared  in 
a  great  variety  of  ways,  and  should  often  find  a  place  on 
our  tables. 

Sago. 

Sago  is  a  starchy  substance,  made  from  a  species  of 
palm  growing  in  the  low  lands  of  the  East  Indies.  The 
tree  does  not  grow  high,  but  has  a  thick  trunk,  and  at 
a  certain  time  in  its  growth  there  is  only  a  thin  shell  of 
wood  on  the  outside,  the  entire  central  portion  being  filled 
with  a  starch-bearing  substance.  The  starch  is  extracted 
by  a  series  of  manipulations  and  made  into  the  sago  of 
commerce.  There  are  several  varieties  of  sago.  That 
which  has  been  simply  dried  is  like  other  starch, 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  swells  and  becomes 
clear  when  boiled  in  water.  There  is  another  variety 
which  has  been  so  treated  in  the  manufacturing  process 
that  it  is  partially  soluble  in  cold  water.  Sago  is  some- 
times adulterated  by  the  addition  of  potato  starch.  Such 
can  be  easily  detected  by  the  use  of  the  microscope,  as  the 
granules  of  potato  starch  are  larger  and  more  regular  in 
outline. 

Tapioca. 

Tapioca  is  manufactured  from  the  large,  succulent 
roots  of  the  tropical  plant  known  as  "manihot."  It  is 
extensively  cultivated  in  tropical  America,  and  on  the 
coast  of  Africa.  The  roots  are  grated,  and  the  starch 
left  to-settle  from  the  extracted  juice. 


314  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

The  pulp  which  remains  may  be  made  into  a  bread-like 
cake  called  "cassava/'  or  dried  and  used  for  porridge,  etc. 
There  is  one  variety,  the  juice  of  which  contains  a  poison- 
ous acid,  but  it  is  driven  off  by  heat,  so  that  the  prepared 
products  are  wholesome.  When  the  starch  has  settled,  it 
is  dried  on  heated  plates,  and  constantly  stirred.  This 
gives  us  the  tapioca  of  commerce.  Brazil  arrowroot  has 
the  same  source  as  tapioca,  but  it  is  dried  without  heating, 
and  is  known  as  "tapioca  meal,"  or  "Brazilian  arrowroot." 

Arrowroot. 

Arrowroot  is  the  name  of  the  starch  derived  from  the 
root  of  some  species  of  maranta.  Arrowroot  gives  the 
most  transparent  and  delicate  liquid,  when  cooked,  of 
any  of  the  starches  commonly  used,  and  is  esteemed  in 
cookery,  and  is  much  used  for  infants  and  invalids.  The 
plant  from  which  arrowroot  is  made  is  largely  cultivated 
in  Bermuda  and  Jamaica.  It  is  also  grown  to  some  ex- 
tent in  Georgia  and  Florida.  The  roots,  or,  more  prop- 
erly, rhizomes,  are  the  starch-bearing  portion  of  the 
plant.  The  amount  of  starch  produced  varies  at  different 
ages  of  the  plant,  but  when  at  their  best,  the  roots  pro- 
duce about  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  starch.  This  starch 
is  sometimes  adulterated  with  potato  starch. 

Cornstarch. 

Cornstarch  is  the  only  other  starch  used  to  any  consid- 
erable extent  for  food,  though  there  is  no  perceptible  rea- 
son why  wheat  and  potato  starches  should  not  be  used  if 
they  are  sufficiently  cheap  to  render  their  use  advisable. 

References:     Enc.   Brit.   "Tapioca,"   "Arrowroot,"   "Sago;" 
Chemistry    of   Cookery— Williams— pp.    186-190;    Goodholme's 
Domestic  Cyclopedia,  p.  340;  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopedia; 
Century  Dictionary  &  Cyclopedia;  Chambers'  Encyclopedia. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
MILK. 

It  requires  two  pounds  of  milk  to  furnish  as  much 
nutriment  as  is  found  in  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  beef 
of  good  quality.  Six  ounces  of  bread  supplies  an  equal 
amount  of  nutriment,  but  the  nutritive  value  of  the  given 
amounts  of  the  three  are  not  exactly  the  same.  According 
to  the  latest  advices  on  the  food  value  of  milk,  it  would 
make  a  better  single  food  than  meat,  because  the  nutri- 
ents are  more  nearly  in  the  right  proportion,  but  it  is 
not  adapted  as  a  single  food  for  man.  The  proportion  of 
water  to  solid  material  is  so  great  that  a  very  large 
quantity  would  have  to  be  consumed  to  obtain  the  re- 
quired amount  of  solid  matter.  There  is  too  much  pro- 
tein for  the  fats  and  carbohydrates  present.  Milk  is  a 
perfect  food  only  for  the  young  of  the  animal  of  its  own 
species.  Cow's  milk  is  a  perfect  food  for  the  calf,  but  not 
for  the  human  infant.  There  are  certain  diseased  condi- 
tions in  which  milk  alone  is  considered  the  best  food  for 
a  time,  but  this  should  not  be  continued  after  the  diges- 
tive organs  are  strong  enough  to  make  use  of  other  foods 
with  it.  There  is  a  law  of  nature  to  the  effect  that  an  or- 
gan which  is  not  used,  or  which  is  misused,  shall  either 
cease  to  exist,  or  lose  its  power.  Milk  is  ordinarily  di- 
gested in  the  upper  part  of  the  digestive  tract,  and  should 
have  used  with  it  some  of  the  grain  foods,  beans,  cheese, 
and  other  foods  which  are  digested  largely  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  digestive  canal.  Cattle  thrive  better  on  a  ra- 
tion containing  some  hay,  than  one  consisting  of  grain 
alone.  The  same  necessity,  to  a  less  degree,  exists  with 
man.  The  digestive  tract  needs  a  certain  amount  of  bulk 

References:     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  74,  pp 
9-21;       . 


316  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

• 

in  the  food  to  keep  all  the  digestive  organs  employed,  and 
to  produce  healthy  action. 

Milk  is  very  valuable  in  the  culinary  art,  both  because 
it  gives  greater  food  value,  and  because  it  increases  the 
palatability  of  many  dishes.  When  milk  instead  of  cream 
must  be  used  in  coffee,  hot  milk  will  give  a  better  flavor 
than  cold  milk,  and  leaves  the  beverage  hot.  Stewed 
onions  have  a  less  decided  and  consequently  better  flavor 
when  served  with  milk  dressing.  Bread  has  a  greater 
food  value  when  milk  is  used  in  making  it.  The  sauces 
in  which  milk  may  be  used  are  very  numerous,  and  in 
each  case  it  embellishes  the  dish  with  which  it  is  used,  and 
gives  it  additional  nutriment.  For  most  persons  milk 
is  the  best-known  beverage.  The  following  are,  in  sub- 
stance, the  conclusions  drawn  from  an  experiment  made 
in  the  boarding  hall  of  the  University  of  Maine,  in  which 
the  object  was  to  ascertain  the  effect  of  a  limited  and  un- 
limited supply  of  milk : 

"  ( i )  The  dietaries  in  which  milk  was  more  abundant- 
ly supplied  were  somewhat  less  costly  than  the  others,  and 
at  the  same  time  were  fully  as  acceptable.  (2)  The 
increased  consumption  of  milk  had  the  effect  of  materially 
increasing  the  proportion  of  protein  in  the  diet.  (3) 
The  milk  actually  supplied  the  place  of  other  food  mate- 
rials, and  did  not,  as  many  suppose,  simply  furnish  an 
additional  amount  of  food,  without  diminishing  the  quan- 
tity of  other  materials.  (4)  The  results  indicate  that 
milk  should  not  be  regarded  as  a  luxury,  but  as  an 
economical  article  of  diet,  which  families  with  moderate 
incomes  may  freely  purchase  as  a  probable  means  of 
improving  the  character  of  the  diet,  and  of  cheapening 
the  cost  of  the  supply  of  animal  food."  * 

Whole  milk  is  more  palatable  than  skim  milk,  but  there 
is  practically  no  difference  in  the  amount  of  muscle- 
forming  material  in  the  two.  Milk  has  three  and 
three-tenths  per  cent,  of  protein ;  lean  meat  contains  about 

*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations.   Bulletin  No.  37. 


MILK.  317 

thirteen  per  cent,  of  protein.  Prof.  Atwater  says  there  is 
about  the  same  amount  of  actual  nutritive  materials  in  the 
protein  of  the  two.  The  nutrients  differ  both  in  number 
and  kind  in  the  two  foods. 

Milk  contains  a  large  percentage  of  water.  This  holds 
some  of  the  solids  in  solution,  and  aids  in  their  assimila- 
tion by  carrying  them  to  the  tissues  of  the  boay. 
The  microscopic  fat  globules  of  milk  are  merely  held  in 
suspension,  they  are  lighter  than  other  parts  of  the  liquid. 
When  milk  sets  in  a  cool  place,  they  rise  to  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  cream,  as  little  wooden  balls  would  rise  to 
the  surface  of  water. 

Cream  contains  practically  all  the  butter  fat  of  the 
milk,  if  it  has  been  carefully  separated.  It  contains  also 
some  milk,  more  when  hand-skimmed  than  when  re- 
moved by  the  separator.  Cream  is  valuable  largely  for  its 
heat-giving  properties.  Cream  and  butter  are  not  eco- 
nomical sources  of  fat,  but  their  delicious  flavor  makes 
many  other  foods  so  much  more  palatable  that  they  are 
highly  prized  as  food  materials. 

The  value  of  milk  is  usually  gauged  by  the  amount  of 
fat  it  contains.  The  reason  for  this  is,  there  are  so  many 
things  which  cause  the  amount  of  fat  to  vary,  such  as  the 
change  of  weather,  method  of  handling,  etc.  The  milk  of 
different  breeds  of  cattle  varies  greatly  in  composition. 
With  regard  to  this  subject,  Prof.  Voorhees  says : 

"The  influence  of  breed  is  very  marked;  so  much  so 
that  dairy  breeds  are  classified  into  milk  and  butter 
breeds,  that  is,  those  which  give  a  large  quantity  of  poorer 
quality,  and  those  which  give  a  smaller  quantity  of  higher 
quality.  With  the  improvement  of  the  stock  by  the 
introduction  of  recognized  butter  producing  breeds  of 
cows,  the  quality  of  the  product  materially  improves. 
Milk  which  is  rich  in  fats  is  more  apt  to  be  rich  in  other 
nutriments,  and  vice  versa.  The  most  common  adultera- 
tions of  milk  reduce  the  fat  either  by  skimming  or  by 
adding  water." 


318  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

The  farmer  has  another  reason  to  be  thankful  that  he 
need  not  depend  upon  the  market  for  milk.  The  varia- 
tion in  composition  of  pure  milk  is  so  great  as  to  make 
it  possible  to  pay  very  much  more  for  the  nutrients  in 
one  quart  of  milk  than  another  at  the  same  price  per 
quart. 

"The  carbohydrate  of  milk  is  in  the  form  of  milk  sugar. 
This  is  a  white  powder  of  low  sweetening  power.  It 
resembles  cane  sugar  in  chemical  composition,  but  is  much 
less  soluble.  When  milk  sours,  some  of  the  sugar  is 
changed  to  lactic  acid,  which  has  the  effect  of  coagulating 
the  casein.  When  about  eight-tenths  of  one  per  cent, 
of  acid  has  developed,  fermentation  ceases,  so  that  the 
sour  milk  may  still  contain  much  of  the  original  milk 
sugar,  but  sour  milk  is  often  injurious  to  the  digestive 
organs,  and  the  value  of  the  remaining  nutrients  may  be 
much  reduced.  In  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  there 
are  about  seven-tenths  of  a  pound  of  mineral  matter, 
chiefly  phosphates  and  chlorides  of  potash,  soda,  and  lime. 

"Milk  is  probably  the  most  susceptible  of  all  foods  to 
contamination  from  its  surroundings.  It  is  also  admir- 
ably adapted  for  carrying  dirt  and  disease  into  the 
human  system.  People  living  in  towns  and  villages  must 
trust  to  the  vigilance  of  inspectors  and  the  honesty  of  the 
dairymen  for  a  supply  of  pure  milk.  The  farmer  who 
understands  the  best  methods  of  feeding  and  handling 
cows,  and  knows  the  necessity  of  absolute  cleanliness  in 
caring  for  all  utensils  used  about  the  milk,  as  well  as  the 
place  of  keeping  it,  is  in  little  danger  of  the  many  evils 
which  have  their  source  in  the  milk  supply  of  the  city. 

"The  sources  of  contamination  of  milk  are  very  numer- 
ous. In  ill-ventilated  barns  there  will  be  dust  from  the 
hay  floating  in  the  air,  ready  to  enter  the  freshly  drawn 
milk.  During  the  milking,  dust  and  dirt  are  brushed 
from  the  under  side  of  the  cow's  body.  The  hairs  which 
find  their  way  into  the  milk  often  carry  large  numbers  of 


MILK.  319 

germs.  When  milk  stands,  a  sediment  often  collects  in 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  which  can  be  credited  to  nothing 
but  the  carelessness  of  the  milker.  Unless  the  milker 
makes  a  cleanly  toilet  before  beginning  the  milking,  dirt 
from  his  hands  and  clothing  is  apt  to  enter  the  milk. 
Thorough  cleaning  of  all  milk  vessels  with  pure  water  is 
always  very  essential.  Impure  water  may  affect  the  milk 
very  much,  and  bacterial  contamination  is  often  carried 
into  the  milk  when  it  is  diluted  with  water.  After  the 
milk  enters  the  house,  it  must  be  kept  in  a  cool,  well- 
ventilated  room,  or  it  will  be  further  contaminated."  t 

Conn  says :  "Practically  all  fresh  milk  contains  bac- 
teria. It  is  possible  in  some  cases  to  obtain  milk  which 
is  free  from  them,  but  it  is  very  difficult.  In  spite  of 
cleanly  methods,  sterilized  vessels,  and  the  greatest  care 
to  prevent  dirt  and  dust  entering  the  milk,  in  the  majority 
of  cases  some  bacteria  are  present." 

The  most  rigid  cleanliness  usually  prevents  the  intro- 
duction of  any  harmful  organisms.  Vaughn  believes  "ty- 
rotoxicon  may  originate  in  milk  of  long  standing  in 
closed  vessels,  owing  to  putrefactive  changes  which  are 
due  to  minute  organisms.  The  introduction  of  these 
organisms  into  milk  hastens  putrefaction,  and  consequent- 
ly the  formation  of  ptomaines.  Milk  from  cows  kept  in 
filthy  stables  is  likely  to  undergo  speedy  putrefaction,  and 
poisonous  germs  may  also  adhere  to  the  sides  of  any 
vessels  which  are  not  kept  absolutely  clean."* 

When  milk  stands  a  few  hours,  if  it  is  in  its  normal 
condition,  it  undergoes  what  is  known  as  lactic  fermenta- 
tion. In  sour  milk,  some  of  the  sugar  has  been  changed 
to  lactic  acid,  the  food  value  of  which  is  probably  less  than 
that  of  the  sugar  which  the  milk  contained  previous  to 
souring.  Buttermilk  has  about  the  same  food  value  as 
skim  milk,  unless  much  water  has  been  added  in  the 
churn.  "The  acid-forming  species  of  bacteria  are  of  the 

t  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. ,  Office  Exp.  Stations  Bulletin  No.  25. 
*  Ptomaines  and  Loucomaines,  Vaughn. 


320  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

greatest  importance  of  any  of  the  numerous  species  found 
in  milk.  The  bacteria  which  produces  slimy  fermenta- 
tion sometimes  causes  much  trouble  in  dairies,  as  slimy 
milk  produces  no  cream,  and  is  useless  for  all  ordinary 
purposes.  There  is  a  fermentative  process  which  pro- 
duces what  is  known  as  'blue  milk.'  When  growing  in 
ordinary  milk,  the  effect  of  this  organism  is  very  marked. 
For  a  few  hours  no  change  is  noticed,  but  just  about  the 
time  when  the  milk  begins  to  become  acid,  some  intense 
blue  patches  make  their  appearance.  The  faster  the  acid 
forms,  the  quicker  the  coagulation  appears,  and  the 
smaller  are  the  blue  patches ;  while  if  the  acid  is  produced 
more  slowly,  the  blue  patches-  are  larger  and  of  better 
color.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  cause  of  blue 
milk  is  always  some  unknown  source  of  filth.  Blue  milk 
is  always  an  infection  due  to  outside  contamination,  and 
its  remedy  is  always  to  be  found  in  care  and  cleanliness. 

"A  consideration  of  the  subject  of  souring  of  milk  would 
not  be  complete  without  reference  to  the  effect  of  electric- 
ity. The  popular  belief  that  thunder  storms  will  sour 
milk  is  so  widespread  that  it  would  seem  as  if  there  must 
be  some  foundation  for  it.  It  has  been  asserted  by  many 
that  the  ozone  produced  in  the  air  by  electricity  causes  the 
milk  to  sour.  In  experiments  in  which  electric  sparks  were 
discharged  over  the  surface  of  milk,  however,  little  or  no 
effect  has  been  produced  upon  it.  The  conclusion  is  that 
electricity  is  not  of  itself  capable  of  souring  milk,  or  even 
of  materially  hastening  the  process.  Nor  can  the  ozone 
developed  during  the  thunderstorms  be  looked  upon  as 
of  any  great  importance.  It  seems  probable  that  the  con- 
nection between  a  thunderstorm  and  the  souring  of  milk 
is  one  of  a  different  character.  Bacteria  grow  more 
rapidly  in  the  warm,  sultry  conditions  which  usually  pre- 
cede a  thunderstorm,  and  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
thunderstorm  and  the  souring  occur  together,  not  be- 

*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  29;    also,  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin  No.  9. 


MILK.  321 

cause  the  thunder  has  hastened  the  souring,  but  rather 
because  the  climatic  conditions  which  have  brought  the 
storm  have  at  the  same  time  been  such  as  to  cause  un- 
usually rapid  bacterial  growth.  This  fact  has  been  veri- 
fied by  many  experiments,  which  have  shown  that,  with- 
out the  presence  of  lactic  organisms,  there  can  be  no 
spontaneous  souring  of  milk, 

"Milk  deprived  of  bacteria  will  keep  sweet  during  thun- 
derstorms. Dairymen  find  no  difficulty  in  keeping  milk, 
if  it  is  cooled  immediately  after  being  drawn  from  the 
cow,  and  is  kept  cool.  Milk  submerged  in  cool  water  is 
not  affected  by  thunderstorms.  Dairymen  find  that  dur- 
ing 'dog-day'  weather,  even  when  there  is  no  thunder, 
it  is  just  as  difficult  to  keep  milk  as  it  is  during  thunder- 
storms ;  and  they  also  find  that  thorough  cleanliness  in 
regard  to  the  milk  vessels  is  the  best  possible  preventative 
against  souring  milk  during  a  thunderstorm.  It  is  safe  to 
conclude,  therefore,  that  in  all  cases  it  is  the  bacteria 
which  sour  the  milk,  and  if  there  seems  to  be  a  casual 
connection  between  the  thunder  and  the  souring,  it  is  an 
indirect  one  only.  Climatic  conditions  have  hastened 
bacterial  growth,  and  have  also  brought  on  the  thunder- 
storms. The  same  conditions  would  affect  milk  in  ex- 
actly the  same  way,  even  though  no  thunderstorm  were 
produced,  and  this  effect,  our  dairymen  tell  us,  is  fre- 
quently observed  during  the  warm,  sultry,  autumn  days." 

There  are  various  drinks  made  from  milk,  among 
which  are  koumiss  and  matzoon.  For  many  generations 
the  nomadic  tribes  of  Tartary  have  prepared  koumiss 
from  mare's  milk.  In  recent  times  it  has  been  prepared  in 
America  from  cow's  milk  by  the  use  of  small  quantities 
of  yeast  and  sugar,  keeping  the  milk  at  the  temperature 
necessary  for  the  best  results.  It  is  considered  a  valuable 
liquid  for  invalids  in  some  cases.  Matzoon  is  another 
milk  preparation  made  by  the  addition  of  a  ferment. 
Condensed  milk  is  prepared  by  cooling  the  milk  to 


322  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

60°  F.,  then  quickly  heating-  to  a  temperature  of  185°  F., 
at  which  point  the  water  is  evaporated.  The  tempera- 
ture is  not  allowed  to  fall  below  160°  F.  until  the 
bulk  is  reduced  to  about  one-fourth  its  original  volume. 
If  sweetening-  is  used  it  should  be  added  at  this  time. 
There  is  also  an  unsweetened  condensed  milk  which  is 
claimed  to  be  thoroughly  sterilized.  The  article  known 
as  "evaporated  cream"  is  simply  milk  evaporated  to  a 
creamy  consistency. 

The  fuel  value  of  skim  milk  is  only  about  one-half  that 
of  whole  milk  on  account  of  the  loss  of  the  cream.  Ex- 
perimenters have  found  that  skim  milk  contains  nearly 
all  the  muscle  and  bone-forming  elements  of  the  original 
milk,  as  well  as  nearly  all  the  milk  sugar.  One  can  buy 
as  much  energy-giving  food  for  a  certain  amount  of 
money  in  skim  milk  as  in  whole  milk,  because  the  loss  of 
fat  in  the  skim  milk  is  balanced  by  the  greater  number 
of  pounds  available  for  the  same  money,  giving  more 
sugar,  and  both  are  energy-producing  foods.  In  buying 
whole  milk,  one  would  pay  twice  as  much  for  an  equal 
amount  of  muscle-forming  food  as  in  skim  milk. 

It  is  wise  to  use  skim  milk  freely  in  preparing  many 
foods  for  the  table,  in  families  where  there  are  little 
children,  not  only  on  account  of  its  use  rendering  the  food 
more  palatable,  but  because  the  albumen  and  casein  of  the 
milk  are  excellent  materials  for  the  production  of  muscle 
in  young  and  growing  children,  and  the  mineral  matter 
is  very  useful  in  forming  a  solid  framework  for  the 
body. 

"In  one  hundred  pounds  of  skim  milk  there  are  about 
three  and  one-half  pounds  of  casein  and  albumen.  When 
we  take  into  consideration  the  large  amount  of  water  in 
both  skim  milk  and  buttermilk  (eighty-seven  per  cent  in 
skim  milk,  and  ninety  per  cent  in  buttermilk),  this  is  a 
relatively  large  amount  of  muscle-forming  material. 
After  removing  the  water  from  one  hundred  pounds  of 
slam  milk,  there  will  be  left  about  nine  and  three-fourths 


MILK.  323 

pounds  of  solid  matter,  of  which  three  and  one-half 
pounds  are  casein  and  albumen,  five  and  one-fourth 
pounds  are  milk  sugar,  a  little  more  than  three-fourths  of 
a  pound  is  ash,  while  the  remainder  is  composed  of  fat  and 
traces  of  other  constituents/'  * 

*  Minn.  Farmers'  Inst.  Ann.  1896,  No.  9,  pp.  66-68. 

*  Monrad's  New  Edition  of  "Pasteurization  and  Milk   Pres- 
ervation." 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

INVALID  COOKERY. 

In  invalid  cookery,  cleanliness  and  good  appearance 
are  of  great  importance.  Food  and  medicine  are  under 
the  physician's  direction,  but  after  the  kinds  and  quanti- 
ties of  food  have  been  designated,  the  nurse  has  still  much 
for  which  she  is  personally  responsible.  She  must  select, 
prepare,  and  serve  the  food. 


Invalid's  Tray. 

An  educated  woman  is  a  thinking  woman.  The  nurse 
who  has  a  true  knowledge  of  foods  thinks  when  she 
goes  to  the  market,  and  endeavors  to  decide  what  selection 
will  best  subserve  the  needs  of  her  patient,  restricted  as 
she  is  in  the  kind  of  food  which  he  can  take.  If  the 
physician  has  ordered  fish  for  his  patient,  she  is  careful 
to  select  a  fish  with  bright  eyes,  firm  flesh,  and  stiff  fins, 
for  she  knows  that  all  fish  deteriorate  very  rapidly,  and 
that  unless  properly  cared  for  by  the  fisherman  they  are 
unfit  for  food  when  first  placed  on  the  market.  A  wise 


INVALID  COOKERY.  325 

person  avoids  oysters  which  have  an  especially  plump  ap- 
pearance, as  they  have,  in  all  probability,  been  "floated," 
which  in  some  cases  affects  their  food  value  deleteriously, 
though  they  sell  for  a  high  price. 

A  piece  of  meat  or  a  fowl  which  has  been  ripened  to 
just  the  proper  degree  will  not  be  long  in  passing  beyond 
that  stage,  unless  carefully  protected.  A  cup  of  oysters  or 
a  piece  of  fish  will  spoil  in  a  very  short  time  if  left  in  a 
warm  kitchen.  The  carefully  selected  food  must  not  be 
lost  sight  of  until  it  is  safe  in  a  cool,  well-ventilated  place. 
Victuals  are  often  unfit  for  use  when  not  actually  spoiled, 
and  the  sick  person's  taste  will  decide  with  great  alacrity 
whether  the  article  has  the  most  perfect  flavor.  That 
such  food  is  distasteful  is  not  the  only  evil  effect.  Bac- 
teria are  constantly  at  work  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, and  their  products  are  often  deleterious  to 
health.  A  change,  so  slight  as  not  to  be  noticed  by  a  well 
person,  might  be  sufficient  to  materially  disturb  the  di- 
gestion of  an  invalid. 

Diets  are  roughly  divided  into  liquid,  light,  and  dry ; 
convalescent  diet  may  be  added  also. 

Liquid  diet  is  used,  of  course,  in  cases  in  which  solid 
food  cannot  be  taken.  Milk  is  important  among  the 
liquids  so  used.  It  is  given  in  its  pure  state,  or  variously 
diluted.  It  is  used  hot  or  cold,  and  may  be  flavored  with 
ginger,  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  chocolate,  coffee,  lemon,  etc. 

Some  ways  in  which  milk  may  be  used :  ( I )  by  di- 
luting with  mineral  water;  (2)  by  diluting  with  alkaline 
water;  (3)  by  diluting  with  hot  water;  (4)  acid  prepara- 
tions, as  lobbered  milk;  (5)  wheys,  as  wine  whey,  vine- 
gar whey,  rennet  whey,  etc.;  (6)  broths  made  with 
milk,  as  oyster  broth  and  clam  broth;  (7)  prepared 
milks,  as  condensed  milk,  sterilized  milk,  malted  milk, 
etc. 

If  the  physician  orders  a  diet  of  milk,  the  nurse  must 
serve  milk  alone,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  it  should 
always  be  served  in  the  same  cup  or  glass,  or  in  the  same 


326  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

form.  Serve  it  in  different  dishes,  in  varied  .and  attrac- 
tive forms,  and  with  different  flavorings,  if  permitted. 
Extreme  care  is  necessary  to  keep  milk  in  such  condition 
that  it  will  be  wholesome.  The  cleanest  and  purest  of 
milk  procurable  contains  many  micro-organisms,  and 
they  multiply  very  rapidly.  The  vessels  in  which  milk 
is  kept  must  be  thoroughly  washed  and  scalded  every 
time  a  fresh  supply  of  milk  is  brought  in.  If  the  milk 
can  is  a  tin  one,  see  that  the  scalding  water  reaches  every 
portion  of  the  can,  and  that  it  is  free  from  every  trace 
of  milk.  Pour  the  boiling  water  out  over  the  seam,  for 
here  is  a  chance  for  dirt  to  cling.  Unless  the  milk  has 
been  chilled  before  it  was  brought  to  you,  set  it  in  cold 
water  and  stir  until  it  is  cold;  then  set  where  it  will  be 
very  cold,  but  not  freeze.  Mild  antiseptics,  such  as 
borax,  boracic  acid,  and  salicylic  acid  are  sometimes  used 
for  preserving  milk  for  domestic  purposes,  but  these 
should  never  be  used  for  either  sick  or  well,  because  they 
prevent  the  digestive  organs  doing  their  work  in  the 
best  manner.  Disease  is  sometimes  caused  by  their  use. 

Milk  may  be  preserved  for  a  time  by  sterilizing  or 
pasteurizing,  and  is  often  so  prepared  for  invalids.  Such 
treatment  changes  the  flavor  somewhat,  but  the  taste  is 
not  usually  objectionable.  Condensed  milk,  diluted  with 
about  two  parts  water,  is  sometimes  substituted  for  fresh 
milk. 

In  some  cases,  the  recovery  of  health  depends,  in  a 
great  degree,  on  the  ability  of  the  nurse  to  furnish  deli- 
cate, delicious,  attractive,  and,  above  all,  digestible  and 
nourishing,  food. 

If  the  smoke  on  a  broiled  steak  is  distasteful  to  a  pa- 
tient, the  difficulty  may  be  removed  by  broiling  the  steak 
in  paper,  or  cooking  it  in  the  upper  part  of  a  double 
boiler. 

When  a  varied  diet  is  allowed,  the  nurse  should  skill- 
fully and  tactfully  ascertain  the  wishes  of  her  patient; 
then  prepare  just  such  a  meal  as  he  wants,  and  serve  it  at 


INVALID  COOKERY.  327 

the  exact  hour  that  it  should  be  served.  The  life  of  a  con- 
valescent is  not  a  very  eventful  one,  and  the  nurse  who 
can  serve  a  well-cooked,  dainty  meal  at  just  the  right 
time  aids  in  his  improvement,  both  physically  and  men- 
tally, by  putting  his  mind  at  rest  on  this  one  point,  at 
least.  He  no  longer  wonders  whether  he  will  have  a 
satisfactory  meal  today. 

There  are  at  least  two  reasons  why  it  is  necessary  that 
the  nurse  learn  as  early  as  possible  the  amount  of  food 
required  by  the  patient :  ( I )  He  requires  a  sufficient 
amount  of  nourishment.  A  thoughtful  woman  knows 
practically  how  much  nutritive  material  the  food  used 
contains.  If  the  kinds  of  food  are  limited,  and  the  pa- 
tient cannot  take  a  sufficient  amount  of  food  in  one  form, 
some  means  must  be  devised  for  preparing  it  in  such 
form  that  it  will  be  both  palatable  and  digestible.  A 
food  becomes  distasteful,  no  matter  how  palatable  it  may 
be  at  first,  if  it  is  offered  too  often  in  the  same  form.  (2) 
If  too  large  an  amount  is  served,  a  delicate  stomach  will 
sometimes  rebel,  when  the  proper  amount  would  be  at- 
tractive. Better  err  by  serving  too  little  than  too  much. 
The  practice  of  overserving  is  a  very  wasteful  one,  for 
an  invalid  does  not  care  for  made-over  dishes,  and  they 
are  not  best  for  him.  Food  has  its  best  flavor  when  fresh 
cooked  and  is  in  general  more  easily  made  use  of  in  the 
body.  If  the  patient  insists  that  a  certain  tidbit  is 
specially  fine,  and  wishes  it  reserved,  let  it  be  so,  but  lay  it 
away  in  a  cool,  clean  place.  Do  not  leave  it  in  the  room. 

When  preparing  a  meal  for  the  patient,  arrange  the 
dishes  on  the  tray  before  beginning  the  cooking,  that 
there  may  be  no  delay  in  serving  when  the  food  is 
ready.  See  that  the  tray  is  large  enough  to  admit  all 
that  is  necessary  without  crowding,  but  do  not  have 
much  vacant  space.  The  perfectly  clean  tray  should  be 
covered  with  a  clean,  well-ironed  tray  cloth.  The  dishes 
should  be  the  prettiest  the  house  affords,  and  if  colored, 
should  be  such  as  to  present  a  peaceful,  restful  effect. 


328  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

For  instance,  when  you  use  some  blue  or  yellow  dishes, 
let  the  rest  be  white.  Orange-colored  pieces,  if  not 
vivid,  are  pretty  with  violet  or  pale  gold  dishes.  The 
following,  attributed  to  a  famous  artist,  illustrates  the 
effect  of  inharmonious  combinations  on  a  delicate  organ- 
ism :  "I  remember  once  being  called  upon  to  paint  a 
portrait  of  quite  a  pretty  girl.  She  was  dark,  and  wore 
a  blue  waist  of  an  unbecoming  shade.  I  couldn't  see 
that  girl's  face,  for  the  detestable  bodice  seemed  to  shriek 
and  scream  at  me."  Similar  emotions  might  be  awaken- 
ed in  an  invalid  by  giving  him  a  tray  covered  with  a  red 
cloth,  and  furnished  with  yellow  and  pink  dishes.  The 
tray  cloth  should  always  be  white,  no  matter  what  dishes 
are  used.  Green  tea  is  very  attractive  when  served  in  a 
Nile  green  cup,  but  blue  china  should  not  be  used  on  the 
tray  at  the  same  time.  Clear  coffee  is  very  attractive 
when  served  in  a  yellow  cup  of  just  the  right  shade,  and 
the  invalid  finds  it  easier  to  take  beef  juice  when  the  un- 
pleasant color  is  disguised  by  a  red  glass ;  but  when 
both  are  used  at  once  the  one  detracts  from  the  other, 
so  far  as  the  person  is  affected  by  the  colors. 

Fashions  change  in  the  manner  of  serving  food,  the 
same  as  in  other  things,  but  there  are  a  few  things  that 
must  not  be  lost  sight  of  whatever  the  fashion  may  be: 
Serve  the  coffee  or  tea  in  a  clean  hot  metal  or  earthenware 
pot  of  small  size.  See  that  the  cup  is  warm  also.  Serve 
soup  or  broth  in  a  hot  cup  with  a  hot  cover.  See  that  there 
are  warm  dishes  for  the  things  that  are  to  be  served 
warm,  and  cold  dishes  for  such  as  are  to  be  served  cold. 
See  that  toasts,  steaks,  etc.,  go  directly  from  the  broiler 
to  the  patient,  and  that  cold  dishes  are  served  directly  after 
removing  from  refrigerator.  Set  the  tray  before  the  in- 
valid with  the  plate  in  front  of  him,  the  cup  at  the  right 
hand  and  salt  and  pepper  within  reach,  and  all  things  in 
their  proper  places  on  the  tray.  When  the  patient  has 
finished,  remove  everything  used  during  the  meal  from 
the  room.  Both  food  and  water  absorb  impurities  very 
readily. 


INVALID  COOKERY.  329 

It  is  always  well  to  have  a  few  flowers  on  the  tray. 
It  is  better  to  use  only  dainty  blossoms,  and  very  few 
at  a  time.  Green  is  always  restful,  and  the  slender  fern, 
when  procurable,  is  almost  invariably  welcomed. 

In  filling  a  glass  or  cup  for  an  invalid,  be  sure  that  you 
do  not  spill  a  drop,  and  do  not  fill  the  cup  or  glass  too 
full.  It  is  not  only  bad  form,  but  it  is  hard  to  prevent 
spilling,  especially  in  an  unsteady  hand. 

When  the  patient  has  so  far  recovered  as  to  be  out 
of  danger,  and  needs  nourishing  food  to  build  up  the 
system,  care  is  often  necessary  still  to  avoid  overserving, 
and  the  patient  needs  a  variety  of  well-cooked  food. 

Koumiss. 

One  pint  of  skimmed  milk,  one-fourth  cup  of  hot  water, 
one-sixteenth  of  a  yeast  cake,  one  level  tablespoonful  of 
sugar,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  water  to  mix  the  yeast 
with.  Scald  the  milk  before  using.  Mix  the  ingredients, 
put  into  clean  beer  bottles  or  magnesia  bottles,  close  tight 
and  let  stand  ten  or  twelve  hours  in  about  the  same  heat 
as  for  raising  bread,  then  put  in  cold  place  six  hours. 

Milk  Shake. 

Put  a  cup  of  milk  in  a  glass  jar,  sweeten  to  taste,  and 
flavor  with  fruit  or  vanilla,  or  put  in  a  little  preserves  or 
jelly,  if  liked.  Pack  in  ice  until  very  cold,  then  shake  un- 
til it  froths  well  on  top. 

/ 

Egg  Nog. 

One  egg  (beaten  separately),  one  tablespoonful  of 
sugar.  Beat  the  yolk,  and  add  to  it  three  tablespoonfuls 
of  cream  or  milk.  May  add  more  milk  afterwards  if  de- 
sired. Mix  the  yolks  and  whites,  and  add  more  liquid, 
or  add  a  little  lemon  juice,  nutmeg,  or  ginger,  or  some- 
thing of  the  kind,  if  the  plain  egg  nog  becomes  un- 
palatable. May  heat  the  milk  to  near  the  boiling  point 
but  do  not  boil.  Egg  nog  usually  has  spirits  of  some 
kind  added,  but  fruit  juice  is  better. 


330  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Apple  Water. 

Slice  a  tart  apple  in  very  thin  pieces,  and  cover  with 
boiling  water.  Set  on  back  of  range,  and  cook  gently 
until  the  apples  are  soft,  strain  and  serve. 

Tamarind  Water. 

Wash  tamarinds,  break  into  two-inch  pieces,  and 
cover  with  boiling  water.  Let  cool,  strain,  and  serve  cold 
in  the  place  of  lemonade  as  a  change. 

Flaxseed  Water — Home  Rule. 

Pour  one  pint  of  boiling  water  over  one  tablespoonful 
of  flaxseed,  and  let  steep  two  or  three  hours.  Strain,  and 
flavor  with  apricot  water  or  lemon  juice. 

Flaxseed  Water — Class  Eule. 

Flaxseed,  two  teaspoonfuls  to  one  cup  of  water,  juice 
of  one-half  a  lemon,  sugar  one  tablespoonful.  Strain  and 
serve. 

Apricot  Water. 

Wash  the  apricots,  and  soak  in  cold  water  until  well 
swollen  and  soft,  cook  half  an  hour,  pour  the  water  off, 
sweeten  to  taste,  and  serve  cold. 

Toast  Water. 

Make  dry  toast,  break  into  small  pieces,  put  in  a  bowl, 
and  cover  with  boiling  water.  Cover  the  bowl  with  a 
plate,  and  let  stand  a  few  minutes,  then  drain  the  water 
off,  and  serve  hot  or  cold. 

Hot  Lemonade  No.  1. 

One  good-sized  lemon  to  about  four  glasses  of  water, 
if  not  desired  very  strong,  otherwise  use  one  lemon  to 
two  glasses.  Use  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  to 
each  glass.  Squeeze  the  lemons,  pour  hot  water  over  the 
juice,  sweeten  and  serve. 
Hot  Lemonade  No.  2. 

Bake  a  lemon  until  soft,  and  with  a  spoon  remove  the 
pulp.  Pour  over  it  boiling  water  (one  cup),  sweeten  to 
taste,  strain,  and  serve  while  still  hot. 


INVALID  COOKERY.  331 

Cream  of  Tartar  Tea, 

Two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  glass  of  water, 
sweeten  to  taste,  and  serve. 

Cranberry  Water. 

One-quarter  cup  of  cranberries,  one-quarter  cup  of 
water.  Cook  together,  then  add  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
sugar,  strain,  add  one  cup  of  water,  cool  and  serve. 

Curant  Shrub. 

Currant  juice  (canned)  five  teaspoonfuls,  two  level  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  sugar  and  one  glass  of  water.  The  juice 
from  fresh  currants  may  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

Mulled  Buttermilk. 

One  pint  of  buttermilk,  one  cup  of  cream,  one  rounding 
tablespoonful  of  flour,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  sugar, 
one  egg,  well  beaten.  Thicken  the  cream  with  the  flour. 
Put  the  sugar  into  the  milk,  and  beat  with  a  dover  beater 
while  it  attains  a  boiling  heat.  Then  stir  in  the  cream, 
let  boil  a  few  minutes,  and  add  the  egg,  pouring  the  hot 
liquid  over  it. 

Egg  Gruel. 

One  egg  yolk  and  one  white,  beaten  separately,  one 
tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  hot  milk.  Put  the 
yolk  and  sugar  into  a  bowl,  add  the  white,  then  pour 
on  the  hot  milk,  and  beat  rapidly.  Flavor  with  chocolate 
or  whatever  desired. 

Cracker  or  Toast  Gruel. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  powdered  toast  or  plain  crack- 
ers, one-half  cup  of  boiling  water,  one-half  cup  of  milk, 
one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Put  together,  boil  up  once, 
and  serve.  A  well-beaten  egg  may  be  added.  May  flavor 
with  raisins. 

Rice  Gruel. 

One  tablespoonful  of  rice,  three  cups  of  boiling  wa- 
ter. Cook  until  the  rice  is  soft.  Add  one  tablespoon- 
ful of  flour  mixed  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water. 


332  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Cook  ten  minutes,  then  add  one  cup  of  milk,  make  hot,  salt 
to  taste,  and  serve. 

Rice  and  Tapioca  Gruel. 

One  tablespoonful  of  rice  and  one  of  tapioca  to  one 
quart  of  water.  Boil  until  dissolved,  strain,  season  with 
salt,  and  serve. 

Oatmeal  Gruel. 

To  a  quart  of  boiling  water,  add  two  heaping  table- 
spoonfuls  of  coarse  oatmeal,  and  half  a  level  teaspoonful 
of  salt.  Set  where  it  will  cook,  but  not  boil,  and  let  cook 
one  hour  or  more.  When  ready  to  serve,  add  half  as 
much  milk  or  cream  (warm)  as  you  can  serve  of  the 
gruel. 

Indian  Meal  Gruel. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  cornmeal,  one  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  one  quart  of  boiling  water.  Have  the  water  boiling, 
mix  the  cornmeal  with  a  little  cold  water,  stir  it  into  the 
hot  water,  and  let  cook  three  hours.  May  make  with 
milk  instead  of  water,  and,  when  made  with  water,  add 
milk  or  cream  when  serving. 

Barley  Gruel. 

One  level  tablespoonful  of  barley,  cover  with  boiling 
water,  and  let  boil  a  minute.  Drain,  and  put  in  one 
quart  of  boiling  water  and  cook  two  hours.  Strain,  sea- 
son, and  serve. 

Arrowroot  Gruel. 

Mix  one-half  a  tablespoonful  of  arrowroot  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water,  and  stir  it  into  one  cup  of 
milk  which  is  boiling  hot  in  the  double  boiler.  Keep  cov- 
ered, and  let  cook  half  an  hour.  Salt  to  taste  and  serve. 

Flour  Gruel. 

Make  same  as  arrowroot  gruel,  except  use  twice  the 
quantity  of  flour  that  there  is  of  arrowroot  in  the  above 
formula. 


INVALID  COOKERY.  333 

Farina  Gruel. 

Mix  one  tablespoonful  of  farina  with  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  cold  water  and  stir  it  into  one  cup  of  boiling 
water  and  let  cook  slowly  on  the  back  of  range  or  in  a 
double  boiler  for  half  an  hour,  then  add  one  cup  of  milk, 
and  when  hot  serve. 

Lemon  Whey. 

One  cup  of  hot  milk,  one-half  tablespoonful  of  lemon 
juice,  or  enough  to  cause  curd  to  separate.  Heat  until  the 
clear  whey  is  seen,  then  strain,  and  add  sugar  to  taste. 

Vinegar  Whey. 

Make  in  the  same  manner  as  lemon  whey,  using  vine- 
gar instead  of  lemon  juice. 

Lamb  Broth. 

Make  as  directed  on  page  263,  and  see  that  every  par- 
ticle of  grease  is  removed  before  serving.  May  use  rice, 
cooked  in  plenty  of  water,  in  the  broth. 

Chicken  Broth. 

Cut  up  a  hen  as  for  stewing,  put  the  bony  pieces  in 
the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  and  the  breast  on  top.  Cover 
with  cold  water,  and  cook  slowly  four  or  five  hours.  Pour 
the  broth  off.  Rice  may  be  served  with  it.  See  that  the 
fat  is  all  removed  from  the  broth. 

Beef  Broth. 

Select  the  round  of  beef,  cut  in  small  pieces,  and  cook 
two  hours,  or  if  there  is  time,  select  the  shank  or  shin, 
remove  the  outer  skin,  make  perfectly  clean,  and  cook 
four  or  five  hours.  In  any  case,  simply  cover  an  inch 
deep  with  cold  water,  and  cook  slowly.  Remove  every 
trace  of  fat,  and  salt  to  taste. 

Beef  Tea. 

Prepare  lean  beef  by  removing  the  fat  and  cutting  into 
small  pieces.  Put  a  pound  of  the  meat  in  a  jar  with  a 
cup  of  cold  water,  cook,  and  finish  as  before  directed  for 
beef  extract. 


334  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Beef  Powder. 

Use  the  same  kind  of  meat,  and  prepare  as  for  tea,  but, 
instead  of  cooking,  put  to  dry  at  once  in  cool  oven  or  on 
the  range  shelf.  When  dry,  pulverize  it. 

Cracker  or  Crust  Coffee. 

Toast  bread  crusts,  either  white  or  graham,  or  toast 
crackers  by  laying  in  the  oven  and  allowing  them 
to  stay  until  of  a  rich  brown,  but  do  not  burn.  Then 
break  in  small  pieces  into  a  saucepan,  cover  with  cold 
water,  let  come  to  a  boil,  and  strain.  Serve  the  coffee 
either  hot  or  cold.  Clear,  or  with  cream  or  milk  as  de- 
sired. 

Cereal  Tea. 

Brown  corn,  rice,  wheat,  or  barley  same  as  coffee,  and 
pound  or  grind.  To  make  the  drink,  use  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  either  cereal  desired  in  a  cup  of  cold  water, 
let  boil  five  minutes.  Serve  either  hot  or  cold,  with  or 
without  sugar  or  cream. 

Sea  Moss  Jelly. 

One-half  cup  of  moss.  Irish  moss  and  Iceland  moss 
are  both  often  used  for  invalids.  To  prepare  either  of 
these,  wash  well,  free  from  objectionable  parts,  and  put 
to  soak  in  cold  water.  After  half  an  hour,  put  to  cook, 
using  the  water  in  which  it  was  soaked,  and  enough 
more  to  make  three  cups  of  boiling  water,  or  milk  may  be 
used.  Cook  until  the  moss  is  mostly  dissolved,  and  a 
little  of  the  liquid  cooled  will  thicken  like  jelly.  Serve 
with  lemon  juice  or  cream  to  relieve  the  taste  a  little  and 
make  more  palatable. 

Raw  Beef  Sandwiches. 

Use  round  beef  steak,  scraped  with  a  knife,  seasoned 
or  not,  as  desired.  Spread  between  very  thin  slices  of 
stale  bread. 

Wild  Birds. 

Cook  in  any  manner  desired.  Usually  only  the  breasts 
are  used,  as  there  is  little  meat  on  the  other  parts. 


INVALID  COOKERY.  335 

Beef  Toast. 

Toast  bread  as  for  milk  toast,  lay  on  a  warm  plate,  and 
moisten  with  beef  broth  or  beef  juice  seasoned  with 
salt. 

Milk  Toast. 

Toast  carefully  slices  of  bread  cut  one-half  inch  thick. 
Lay  on  a  warm  plate,  and  turn  over  it  the  hot  whole  milk, 
seasoned  with  a  little  salt.  Or  make  a  white  sauce  of 
one  and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of  flour,  one  teaspoonful  of 
butter,  and  one-half  cup  of  milk,  and  pour  this  over  the 
toast  instead  of  milk. 

Water  Toast. 

Toast  bread  as  for  milk  toast,  and  moisten  with 
boiling  water,  seasoned  with  a  little  butter  and  salt. 

Beef  Custard. 

Beat  an  egg  until  light,  pour  over  it  one  cup  of  beef 
broth,  salt  to  taste,  stir  well,  turn  into  a  buttered  mold, 
set  in  a  pan  of  water,  and  bake  slowly.  When  a  knife 
thrust  into  the  center  comes  out  clear,  the  custard  is 
done.  Serve  hot  or  cold. 

Arrowroot  Custard, 

One  cup  milk,  one  egg,  one  generous  tablespoonful  of 
sugar,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  arrowroot.  Mix  the 
arrowroot  with  one  tablespoonful  of  cold  milk.  Put  the 
remainder  of  the  milk  on  the  stove;  when  it  boils,  add 
the  arrowroot  and  cook  five  minutes,  then  pour  into^the 
beaten  egg  and  sugar  and  cook  very  little.  Flavor  with 
a  teaspoonful  of  chocolate  in  a  tablespoonful  of  hot  milk,, 
or  use  a  few  drops  of  extract  of  lemon.  If  the  arrow- 
root is  left  out,  use  two  eggs. 

References:  Hand  Book  of  Invalid  Cookery — Boland — pp. 
70-101,  254-269;  Monrad's  New  Edition  of  Pasteurization  and 
Milk  Preservation;  The  Art  of  Cookery  for  Invalids,  by  Flor- 
ence B.  Jack. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 
DESSERTS. 

Gelatine  Dishes. 

In  order  to  be  successful  in  making  gelatine  desserts, 
one  must  remember  several  things:  Use  no  more  gela- 
tine than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  the  mass  keep  its 
form  when  molded.  Less  gelatine  is  necessary  in  winter 
than  in  summer.  Always  wet  a  mold  in  cold  water  be- 
fore putting  gelatine  to  cool.  Be  careful  about  moving 
the  mold  before  the  gelatine  is  set,  as  rough  treatment 
may  cause  the  gelatine  to  split  when  turned  out.  When 
fruit  is  used  in  a  mold,  cool  a  little  gelatine  in  the  mold 
first,  and  place  the  fruit  in  such  position  as  to  give  the 
best  effect  when  the  dessert  is  turned  out.  Have  the  dish 
on  which  it  is  to  be  served  well  chilled.  If  the  gelatine 
sticks  to  the  mold,  lay  a  cloth  wrung  from  warm  water 
all  over  it  a  few  minutes,  but  do  not  warm  the  outside 
enough  to  cause  the  gelatine  to  run.  In  making  a  des- 
sert, avoid  setting  the  gelatine  in  too  warm  a  place  while 
soaking.  Such  treatment  may  cause  it  to  taste  gluey. 

Gelatine  may  be  dissolved  by  pouring  hot  water  over 
it  after  it  is  soaked,  or  by  simply  setting  the  dish  contain- 
ing the  soaked  gelatine  in  a  dish  of  hot  water  and  stir- 
ring a  few  minutes.  The  latter  method  facilitates  cooling, 
as  the  liquid  can  then  be  added  cold. 

Clearing  with  egg  will  have  the  same  effect  as  setting 
in  too  warm  a  place  while  soaking.  Gelatines,  at  the 
present  time,  are  so  manufactured  that  they  are  clear  and 
sparkling  without  special  treatment  at  home.  Use  phos- 
phated  gelatines  with  fruit,  and  unphosphated  with  milk 
desserts. 


DESSERTS.  337 

Many  desserts  can  be  made  from  fruit  juices  by  com- 
bining them  with  gelatine.  This  makes  a  light  and  very 
palatable  dessert.  The  following  illustrates  the  making 
of  gelatine  desserts  by  the  use  of  fruit. 

Strawberry  Jelly. 

To  one-third  of  a  box  of  phosphated  gelatine  add  one 
cup  of  cold  water,  and  let  soak  one  hour,  then  set  the 
vessel  containing  it  in  hot  water  and  let  stand,  stirring  un- 
til it  melts.  Add  granulated  sugar  (one  and  one-half 
cups).  When  the  sugar  is  melted,  strain,  and  add  one 
cup  of  strawberry  juice,  and  the  juice  of  one  lemon.  Rinse 
a  porcelain  or  granite  ware  dish  with  cold  water,  turn  the 
mixture  into  it,  and  set  in  ice  water  to  harden.  Lemon 
juice  may  be  omitted  with  phosphated  gelatine,  but  the 
products  are  better  with  it. 

Strawberries  in  Jelly. 

Prepare  a  mixture  as  for  strawberry  jelly.  Pack  fine 
large  berries  in  the  mold,  and  when  the  gelatine  is  as 
thick  as  honey,  pour  it  over  them,  and  set  away  to  stif- 
fen. 

Strawberry  Pudding. 

Prepare  a  mixture  same  as  for  strawberry  jelly.  When 
the  jelly  begins  to  stiffen,  whip  until  perfectly  light  and 
white,  then  add  the  whites  of  three  eggs  beaten  to  a  stiff 
froth.  Into  the  eggs  put  a  pinch  of  salt  and  three  table- 
spoonfuls  of  granulated  sugar. 

Strawberry  Cream. 

After  adding  the  whites  of  the  eggs  in  making  the 
pudding,  whip  into  the  mixture  two  cups  of  whipped 
cream,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  granulated  sugar. 

Peach  Jelly. 

Gelatine  same  as  for  strawberry  jelly,  one  cup  of  peach 
juice,  one  cup  of  cold  water,  one  tablespoonful  of  caramel, 


338  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

one   teaspoonf ul   of  almond   extract.     Sweeten  to   taste. 
Put  together  same  as  lemon  jelly,  and  set  away  to  cool. 

Peaches  in  Jelly. 

Prepare  gelatine  same  as  for  strawberry  jelly.  Select 
perfectly  ripe  freestone  peaches,  pare,  and  stone.  Lay  in 
the  mold  with  the  split  side  up.  When  the  gelatine  is  as 
thick  as  honey,  pour  it  over  them,  and  set  away  to  harden. 
Serve  with  whipped  cream. 

Raspberries  in  Jelly. 

Put  large,  nice  raspberries  in  the  mold,  and  pour  over 
them  a  gelatine  (made  with  a  phosphate  gelatine,  same  as 
for  strawberry  jelly,  except  use  raspberry  juice),  when 
it  is  of  the  consistency  of  honey,  let  cool,  and  serve  with 
cream. 

Coffee  Jelly. 

Use  one  cup  of  coffee  of  the  same  strength  as  for 
drinking,  sweetened  to  taste,  and  one  level  teaspoonful 
of  granulated,  unphosphated  gelatine,  soaked  in  one- 
fourth  cup  of  cold  water  for  half  an  hour.  Pour  the 
hot  coffee  over  it,  strain,  put  to  cool,  and  serve  with 
whipped  cream. 

Coffee  Cream. 

When  the  coffee  jelly  thickens,  beat  well,  then  beat  into 
it  one-third  of  a  cup  of  whipped  cream,  put  into  molds, 
let  harden,  and  serve. 

Lemon  Jelly — For  Home  Work. 

Grate  the  yellow  rind  of  one  lemon,  and  steep  ten 
minutes  in  one  cup  of  boiling  water.  Soak  one-fourth  of 
a  box  of  phosphated  gelatine  in  one-half  a  cup  of  cold 
water  until  soft,  then  strain  the  cup  of  hot  water  from 
the  grated  rind  on  the  gelatine  (fill  from  the  teakettle  to 
make  one  cup  if  the  water  has  evaporated),  add  one- 
fourth  cup  of  lemon  juice,  and  one-half  a  cup  of  sugar. 
Stir  until  gelatine  and  sugar  are  dissolved,  and  strain. 


DESSERTS.  339 

Pour  into  a  dish  wet  in  cold  water,  and  put  to  cool  in  a 
cold  place,  but  do  not  allow  to  freeze. 

Lemon  Jelly — For  Class  Work. 

One  level  teaspoonful  of  gelatine  (soaked  in  one  table- 
spoonful  of  cold  water),  one-fourth  cup  of  hot  water,  two 
level  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon 
juice  and  a  few  drops  of  lemon  extract.  Dissolve  the 
gelatine  and  the  sugar  in  the  hot  water.  Add  the  lemon 
juice.  Strain  into  mold,  and  set  in  a  cold  place  to  harden. 
May  dissolve  the  gelatine  by  setting  the  cup  containing  it 
in  hot  water  and  stirring,  and  add  the  water  cold.  It  will 
thus  harden  much  more  quickly. 

Orange  Jelly. 

Soak  one-fourth  of  a  box  of  gelatine  in  one-fourth 
of  a  cup  of  cold  water  until  soft.  Grate  the  yellow  rind 
of  one  orange  and  steep  it  ten  minutes  in  one-half  cup  of 
hot  water  (pour  in  water,  if  it  has  evaporated,  until  there 
is  half  a  cup)  and  strain  it  over  the  softened  gelatine. 
Add  one-half  a  cup  of  granulated  sugar,  and  stir  until 
dissolved,  then  pour  into  it  the  juice  of  half  a  lemon  and 
one  cup  of  orange  juice,  and  strain  through  a  cloth.  Put 
to  cool  on  ice,  but  do  not  allow  to  freeze.  Serve  on  cold 
plates.  May  use  one  teaspoonful  of  orange  or  lemon  ex- 
tract instead  of  the  grated  peel.  In  that  case  use  cold  in- 
stead of  hot  water  in  making  the  gelatine,  and  dissolve  by 
setting  soaked  gelatine  in  hot  water  and  stirring. 

Orange  Jelly — Class  Work. 

One  full  teaspoonful  of  gelatine  (phosphate),  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  water,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  orange 
juice,  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice,  one  and  one-half 
teaspoonfuls  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  hot  water.  Make 
same  as  lemon  jelly. 

Orange  Cream. 

Make  same  as  orange  jelly,  and  put  to  cool.  When 
it  has- cooled  until  it  is  thick  as  honey,  beat  with  dover 


340  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

beater  until   white,   then     fold     in     one-third   as   much 
sweetened  whipped  cream  as  there  is  of  the  other. 

Grape  Cream. 

Make  same  as  orange  cream,  except  use  grape  juice  in- 
stead of  orange  juice,  and  use  no  flavoring. 

Amber  Jelly — Class  Work. 

One  teaspoonful  of  gelatine  soaked  in  one-fourth  cup  of 
cold  water.  When  gelatine  is  soft,  set  in  hot  water  and 
stir  until  dissolved,  add  one-fourth  cup  of  cold  water, 
and  one-half  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
caramel,  and  two  drops  of  almond  extract.  Strain,  turn 
into  molds,  and  set  away  to  cool. 

Apple  Jelly. 

One  teaspoonful  of  gelatine  soaked  in  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  cold  water,  one-half  cup  of  water  in  which  the  ap- 
ples were  cooked,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  caramel  and  one 
and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of  sugar.  When  gelatine  is 
soft  set  the  cup  in  hot  water  and  stir  until  gelatine  is  dis- 
solved, then  add  the  remaining  water  and  apple  juice. 
Lay  the  nicely  cooked  eighths  of  the  apples  in  the  mold 
and  pour  over  them  part  of  the  liquid,  let  cool  to  the  con- 
sistency of  honey,  put  in  more  apples,  more  liquid,  and 
so  on  until  all  is  used,  set  away  in  a  cold  place  to  stiffen. 
Serve  with  or  without  whipped  cream. 

Prunes  in  Jelly — Class  Work. 

One  level  teaspoonful  of  gelatine,  one  tablespoonful  of 
liquid  from  prunes,  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one-fourth 
cup  of  water,  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  cold  water,  two  stoned  prunes.  Make  same 
as  apple  jelly,  put  the  prunes  in  the  bottom  of  the  mold, 
turn  the  mixture  over  them.  Use  no  flavoring,  of  course. 

Snow  Pudding. 

One-fourth  of  a  box  of  gelatine  soaked  in  one-half  a 
cup  of  cold  water  until  soft.  One-fourth  of  a  cup  of 
lemon  juice,  or  a  little  less  than  that,  if  phosphated  gela- 
time  is  used.  Pour  the  lemon  juice  and  the  gelatine  (when 


DESSERTS.  341 

dissolved )  together,  and  pour  on  enough  water  to  make  a 
pint.  Add  one-half  cup  of  sugar,  and  strain.  Set  in  ice 
water,  and  when  it  is  thick  as  honey  beat  with  the  dover 
egg  beater  until  perfectly  white.  Beat  in  one  teaspoonful 
of  lemon  extract.  Beat  the  whites  of  three  eggs  very  light, 
and  add  one-half  cup  of  sugar.  Fold  the  whites  into  the 
beaten  mixture.  Let  harden,  and  serve  on  cold  plates. 

Sauce  for  Snow  Pudding. 

The  yolks  of  three  eggs,  beaten  very  light.  Add  to 
the  yolks  one  level  tablespoonful  of  sugar.  Pour  over 
this  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  hot  milk,  pouring  slowly, 
and  stirring  rapidly  to  prevent  lumping.  Cook  slowly 
until  it  coats  the  spoon.  Remove  from  the  fire  at  once, 
and  flavor  with  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  lemon  ex- 
tract. Serve  cold. 

Orange  Pudding. 

Make  same  as  snow  pudding,  using  orange  instead  of 
lemon  juice,  and  flavor  with  orange  extract. 

Grape  Pudding. 

Make  same  as  snow  pudding,  except  use  grape  instead 
of  lemon  juice.  Needs  no  flavoring. 

Charlotte  Russe. 

Soak  one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  unphosphated 
gelatine  in  four  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water.  Pour  one 
pint  of  boiling  milk  on  three  beaten  egg  yolks,  return  to 
the  stove,  and  cook  until  you  do  not  taste  raw  eggf.  Add 
one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  gelatine,  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  vanilla  or  lemon,  beat  thoroughly.  Fold  in  three- 
fourths  of  a  cup  or  more  of  whipped  cream,  and  three  egg 
whites,  beaten  stiff,  with  four  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar 
added  to  them.  Pour  into  a  mold  lined  with  sponge  cake 
or  lady  fingers. 

Chocolate  Cream. 

Make  chocolate  cream  in  the  same  way,  except  add 
melted  chocolate  to  the  mixture  while  hot,  and  use  two 
eggs  instead  of  three. 


342  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Ginger  Cream — For  Home  Work. 

Make  ginger  cream  in  the  same  way  as  charlotte 
russe,  using  four  tablespoonfuls  of  chopped  ginger  in- 
stead of  vanilla. 

Ginger  Cream — For  Class  Work. 

One  heaping  tablespoonful  of  ginger,  cut  fine,  one  des- 
sert spoon  of  syrup  of  the  preserved  ginger,  one  egg 
yolk,  well  beaten,  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  cream.  Cook 
cream,  ginger,  and  well-beaten  egg  together,  then  strain 
on  the  gelatine.  Set  in  ice  water,  and,  when  cool,  beat 
until  white.  Use  two  teaspoonfuls  of  unphosphated  gela- 
tine, and  soak  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water  until 
soft. 

A  Delicate  Dessert. 

Two  teaspoonfuls  of  unphosphated  granulated  gelatine 
soaked  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water,  one  teaspoon- 
ful  flour,  one  teaspoonful  water,  one  cup  milk.  Cook  the 
water,  flour  and  milk  together  five  minutes,  and  pour  over 
a  well-beaten  egg  yolk.  Cook  until  it  coats  the  spoon. 
When  cool,  add  the  soaked  gelatine.  When  very  slightly 
stiffened,  beat  in  the  well-beaten  white  of  the  egg.  Flavor 
with  vanilla  or  preserved  ginger.  Serve  with  whipped 
cream. 

Milk  Charlotte — Class  Work. 

One  level  teaspoonful  of  unphosphated  gelatine,  one  ta- 
blespoonful of  cold  milk,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  hot  milk, 
two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one-half  saltspoonful  of 
flavoring  (one  saltspoonful  equals  one-eighth  of  a  tea- 
spoonful),  one  cup  of  whipped  cream,  or  one-half  a  cup  of 
beaten  white  of  egg  and  one-half  a  cup  of  cream.  Soak 
the  gelatine  in  the  cold  milk  until  soft,  then  pour  the  hot 
milk  over  it,  stir  until  dissolved,  and  strain.  Add  the 
sugar  and  the  flavoring.  Let  cool  until  thick  as  honey, 
then  beat  until  white,  and  add  the  whipped  cream,  or 
the  beaten  egg  white. 


DESSERTS.  343 

Milk  Charlotte— Home  Rule. 

For  home  work  double  the  Class  Rule. 
Macedoine  Gelatine  Pudding. 

Phosphated  gelatine,  one-half  box  (more  in  summer)  ; 
water,  three  cups;  oranges,  two;  bananas,  three;  lemons, 
two;  dates,  ten;  walnuts,  fifteen;  sugar,  two  cups.  Soak 
the  gelatine  in  one  cup  of  cold  water  until  soft.  Pour  a 
pint  of  boiling  water  over  it,  and  stir,  add  the  juice  of  the 
lemons,  and  strain.  Wet  a  mold,  and  pour  in  gelatine  to 
cover  the  bottom  about  half  an  inch  thick.  When  it 
thickens,  slice  in  a  little  of  each  kind  of  fruit,  and  pour 
some  gelatine  over  it.  When  the  gelatine  is  thick,  put  on 
the  chopped  nuts  and  dates,  and  pour  some  of  the 
remaining  gelatine  over  it,  and  let  harden.  Then  slice 
on  the  remainder  of  the  fruit,  and  pour  on  the  rest  of 
the  gelatine.  Set  away  to  harden.  Serve  with  whipped 
cream. 

PUDDINGS  AND  PUDDING  SAUCES. 

Caramel  Souffle — For  Class  Work. 

One  level  teaspoonful  of  cornstarch,  one-fourth  cup 
of  water.  Cook  together  until  thickened.  Separately  beat 
the  yolk  and  white  of  an  egg  until  light,  and  add  the 
cooked  mixture  to  the  yolk  a  spoonful  at  a  time.  Then 
fold  in  the  beaten  white,  put  into  buttered  timbale  molds, 
and  bake  in  a  very  slow  oven.  Flavor  with  three  drops 
of  vanilla,  one  tablespoonful  of  caramel,  and  a  little  salt. 
Serve  with  caramel  cream.  The  cornstarch  and  water 
take  the  place  of  one  egg  white.  When  the  souffle  is  re- 
moved from  the  oven,  sprinkle  thickly  with  powdered 
sugar,  and  bar  across  the  top  with  a  hot  poker.  Serve 
immediately. 

Caramel  Souffle— Home  Rule. 

Caramel  souffle  for  home  work,  use  three  times  the 
amount  given  for  Class  Work. 

References:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations  Bul- 
letin No.  21,  p.  13;  Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  702-705; 


344  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Boiled  Custard — For  Home  Work. 

One  cup  of  boiling  milk,  yolks  of  two  eggs,  beaten 
very  light,  or  one  whole  egg.  Pour  hot  milk  over  the 
beaten  egg,  a  little  at  a  time,  beating  constantly.  Add 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  to  yolks,  and  flavor  to  taste. 
Cook  until  it  will  coat  the  spoon  with  a  thin  film  when 
dipped  into  it,  but  be  careful  not  to  cause  it  to  curdle. 
If  making  in  large  quantities,  pour  into  a  dish  when  done, 
and  set  in  cold  water,  and  stir  while  it  cools.  If  the  whites 
and  yolks  are  beaten  separately,  pour  the  hot  custard  over 
the  beaten  whites,  which  will  cook  them  enough. 

Boiled  Custard — For  Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  milk,  one  egg,  one  tablespoonful  of 
sugar.  Proceed  as  above.  May  use  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
flour  with  it.  In  that  case,  cook  the  flour  and  milk,  and 
pour  over  the  egg. 

Caramel  Custard. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  use  four  tablespoonfuls  of 
caramel  instead  of  two  of  sugar. 

Baked  Custard. 

One  teaspoon ful  lemon  extract,  three  eggs,  one  pint 
milk,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one-eighth  teaspoon- 
ful  of  salt.  Beat  the  eggs  slightly,  mix  with  the  other  in- 
gredients and  set  the  vessel  containing  the  custard  in  a 
pan  of  water  to  cook  and  when  set  and  firm  remove  from 
oven. 

Baked  Custard— For  Class  Work. 

One  cup  of  milk,  one  egg,  one  and  one-half  tablespoon- 
fuls of  sugar,  a  dust  of  salt. 

Beat  the  eggs  just  enough  to  have  them  mix  with  the 
milk.  Stir  the  sugar  into  the  mixture.  Flavor  to  taste 
with  nutmeg  or  lemon  extract.  Set  the  dish  containing  the 
custard  in  water  to  bake.  Test  by  inserting  a  knife  to  see 
whether  it  comes  out  clean.  It  should  be  baked  just 
enough  to  stand.  Too  much  baking  makes  it  watery. 


DESSERTS.  345 

Yolk  Custard. 

Four  egg  yolks,  one  cup  of  water,  one  heaping  (two 
level)  tablespoonful  of  cornstarch,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Flavor  with  vanilla.  Beat 
the  yolks  light,  add  the  sugar,  cornstarch,  and  salt,  and 
mix  together.  Then  add  the  water  and  flavoring.  Turn 
into  a  pudding  dish,  and  bake  slowly  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Yolk  Custard— Class  Rule. 

One  large  egg  yolk,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  one-half 
cup  of  water,  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar.     Make  and  bake 
same  as  directed  in  home  rule. 
Caramel  Pudding. 

Use  four  eggs  to  a  pint  of  milk,  and  make  same  as 
above.     Coat  the  sides  of  the  dish  with  thick  caramel, 
pour  the  custard  in,  and  bake  gently.     Turn  out,  and  al- 
low the  caramel  to  run  over  the  pudding  as  a  sauce. 
Caramel  Pudding  with  Water. 

Four  egg  yolks,  or  two  whole  eggs,  one  cup  of  water, 
one  heaping  or  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  cornstarch. 
Sugar  and  salt  to  taste.  Cook  cornstarch  and  water  to- 
gether, and,  when  cooled  a  little,  mix  with  the  beaten  eggs. 
Coat  the  sides  of  the  dish  with  caramel,  pour  the  custard 
in,  and  bake  slowly.  Turn  out  and  serve,  allowing  the 
caramel  to  run  over  the  pudding  as  a  sauce. 
Cornstarch  Pudding — For  Home  Work. 

Use  one  quart  of  milk,  four  rounding  or  eight  level  ta- 
blespoonfuls of  cornstarch,  a  pinch  of  salt,  and  one-half  a 
cup  of  sugar.  Heat  the  milk  to  boiling  point,  and  stir  in 
the  sugar,  salt,  and  cornstarch,  mixed  together.  When 
cooked  sufficiently,  turn  over  the  beaten  whites  of  two 
eggs,  and  stir  in.  To  make  it  yellow,  use  the  yolks  of  the 
eggs.  To  make  it  pink,  use  the  whites  of  the  eggs  and 
some  strawberry  juice.  Serve  cold  with  or  without  cream. 
Cornstarch  Pudding -Class  Work. 

One  cup  of  milk,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  cornstarch, 
one  levd  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  a  pinch  of  salt,  four 


346  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

drops  of  flavoring,  one  egg  yolk,  or  one  egg  white,  if  the 
white  pudding  is  desired.  Cook  the  milk,  cornstarch  and 
sugar  together,  and  pour  over  the  beaten  egg  while  still 
hot. 

Rennet  Pudding. 

One  pint  of  sweet  milk  (whole),  one  level  tablespoon- 
fttl  of  sugar,  one  mustard  spoon  or  one-fourth  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  liquid  rennet,  flavoring,  two  drops.  Heat 
milk  to  90°  F.,  then  add  the  rennet,  flavoring  and  sugar, 
Set  in  warm  water  until  it  begins  to  stiffen,  then  in  a  cool 
place.  If  left  too  long  in  the  warm  water,  the  curd  and 
whey  will  tend  to  separate  when  turned  on  the  dish  to 
serve.  For  this  reason  it  is  better  to  give  it  constant  at- 
tention until  it  is  ready  to  set  away. 

Rice  Pudding — For  Home  Work. 

Rice,  one  measure;  milk,  nine  measures;  sugar,  three- 
fourths  of  a  measure;  salt,  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoonful. 
Put  all  together  in  a  baking  dish,  and  bake  slowly  until 
it  is  of  a  rich,  creamy  consistency,  or,  better,  let  stand  on 
the  back  of  the  stove  or  range,  and  slowly  evaporate  the 
milk.  Stir  the  scum  under  as  it  forms. 

Rice  Pudding — For  Class  Work. 

Rice,  one  tablespoonful,  sugar  three  teaspoonfuls, 
speck  of  salt,  milk,  a  generous  three-fourths  of  a  cup. 

Snow  Pudding. 

Take  one  measure  of  rice  to  three  of  liquid,  and  cook 
in  the  usual  way.  Turn  into  a  pudding  dish,  and  pour 
over  the  top  the  following  cream :  White  of  one  large 
or  two  small  eggs,  beaten  stiff,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
powdered  sugar,  and  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  essence, 
and  last,  six  teaspoonfuls  of  sweet  cream.  Mix  the  sugar 
and  essence  carefully  with  the  beaten  whites,  and  spread 
over  the  rice.  Set  in  the  oven  until  the  meringue  har- 
dens, then  remove  from  oven,  and  dot  over  top  with  lumps 
of  jelly.  Serve  either  hot  or  cold. 


DESSERTS.  347 

Meringued  Rice. 

Make  a  plain  rice  pudding.  When  done  cover  with  a 
thick  meringue  made  as  on  page  362.  When  browned 
slightly,  put  bits  of  bright  jelly  over  the  top. 

Apple  Tapioca  Pudding. 

Soak  over  night,  in  three  cups  of  water,  one-half  cup 
of  tapioca.  Cook  one  hour.  Pour  this  over  one  quart 
of  tart  apples,  pared  and  cored,  add  one-half  cup  of 
sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice,  and  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Cook  until  apples  are  tender.  Serve 
hot  or  cold.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  currant  jelly  on  top 
of  each  apple  just  before  serving. 

Tapioca  Cream. 

Soak  tapioca  in  cold  water  until  soft,  then  take  equal 
measures  of  tapioca  and  milk.  Use  three  eggs  to  one  pint 
of  the  mixture,  and  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar.  Cook 
tapioca  and  milk  until  the  tapioca  is  clear.  Beat  the  eggs 
well,  and  stir  in,  let  cook  a  few  minutes,  and  serve  hot  or 
cold.  Flake  tapioca  may  be  used  instead  of  pearl 
tapioca. 

Tapioca  Snow  Pudding. 

One  egg  white,  beaten  stiff,  with  four  level  tablespoon- 
fuls of  sugar  added  when  first  beginning  to  beat,  one 
cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  tablespoonful  of  tapioca,  one- 
quarter  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Soak  the  tapioca  in  enough 
water  to  cover  it.  When  the  water  is  absorbed,  add  the 
milk  and  cook  in  a  double  boiler  until  the  tapioca  is  trans- 
parent, then  pour  the  tapioca  over  the  beaten  egg  white, 
and  fold  together.  Flavor  to  suit  the  taste,  and  serve 
either  cold  or  warm. 

Strawberry  Tapioca  Pudding. 

Soak  one  cup  of  pearl  tapioca  in  three  cups  of  cold 
water  over  night,  or  several  hours.  Add  half  a  teaspoon- 
ful of  salt,  and  set  in  water  to  cook,  or  put  in  double 
boiler.  When  it  is  boiling  hot,  let  cook  until  the  tapioca 
is  transparent.  Have  the  strawberries  washed,  hulled, 


348  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and  sugared.  When  the  tapioca  is  cooked,  add  three- 
fourths  of  a  cup  of  sugar  to  the  juice  that  has  drained 
from  the  berries,  and  mix  with  the  tapioca.  Add  a  little 
butter,  and  when  the  mixture  has  cooled  sufficiently  not 
to  cook  the  berries,  put  them  in  also.  Use  one  pint  of 
hulled  strawberries  for  the  above  amount. 

Peach  Tapioca  Pudding. 

Make  in  the  same  way  as  apple  tapioca  pudding,  ex- 
cept use  peaches  for  fruit.  Any  of  the  following  com- 
binations of  fruits  may  be  used  in  tapioca  puddings,  in 
gelatine  desserts,  or  in  frappes,  sherbets,  and  water 
ices:  (i)  Strawberries,  raspberries,  and  cherries;  (2) 
red  raspberries  and  currants;  (3)  grape,  pineapple, 
orange,  and  lemon  juice;  (4)  lemon  juice,  orange,  and 
banana;  (5)  pears,  oranges,  and  lemon  juice;  (6)  straw- 
berries and  lemon  juice;  (7)  pineapple,  apple,  and  lemon 
juice;  (8)  bananas,  grapes,  lemon  juice,  and  oranges 
molded  in  jelly,  and  garnished  with  grapes,  limes,  or  apri- 
cots, make  a  pleasing  dessert;  (9)  pineapple  and  orange; 
(10)  pear,  cherry,  lemon  and  strawberry;  (n)  bananas, 
lemon  juice,  and  strawberries;  (12)  pear,  cherry, 
orange,  and  pineapple;  (13)  pineapple,  grape,  and 
orange;  (14)  raspberry,  currant  and  banana;  (15)  cur- 
rant, pear,  cherry,  and  strawberry;  (16)  pear,  cherry, 
red  raspberry  and  strawberry;  (17)  pineapple,  pear,  and 
currant;  (18)  cherry,  orange,  pear,  and  a  trace  of  pine- 
apple; (19)  peaches,  red  raspberries,  bananas,  and 
lemons;  (20)  banana  and  lemon  juice;  (21)  black  rasp- 
berry and  currant;  (22)  white  grapes,  lemon,  and  pine- 
apple; (23)  red  raspberries,  red  currants,  red  cherries, 
and  white  currants;  (24)  red  raspberries  and  cranberries; 
(25)  apples,  pinapple,  oranges,  and  lemon  juice. 

Fig  Pudding — For  Home  Work. 

Flour,  three  cups;  suet,  one  cup;  figs,  one  cup  (chop- 
ped) ;  sour  milk,  one  cup;  soda,  one-half  teaspoonful ;  salt, 
one  teaspoonful ;  sorghum  molasses,  one  cup ;  eggs, 


DESSERTS.  349 

two,  well  beaten;  cloves,  one-fourth  teaspoonful 
(ground)  ;  nutmeg,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  (grated)  ;  cin- 
namon, two  teaspoonfuls  ;  ginger,  two  teaspoonfuls.  Mix 
the  suet,  flour,  spices,  figs,  and  salt  well,  then  put  in  the 
eggs,  molasses,  sour  milk,  and  soda,  and  mix  well.  Cook 
in  a  double  boiler,  or  better  steam  in  a  brown-bread  mold 
for  three  hours.  Serve  with  hard  sauce  flavored  with  nut- 
meg, ginger,  and  lemon  peel,  or  with  liquid  sauce  flavored 
with  vanilla  and  ginger.  Use  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
lemon  peel  and  one-fourth  teaspoonful  each  of  nutmeg  and 
ginger.  Or  use  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  ginger  and  one 
teaspoonful  of  vanilla  in  flavoring  the  sauce. 

Fig  Pudding— For  Class  Work. 

One  cup  flour,  one-third  cup  of  suet,  one-third  cup 
figs,  one-third  cup  milk,  one  teaspoonful  baking  powder, 
one-third  teaspoonful  salt,  cloves,  nutmeg  and  ginger 
mixed,  one-third  cup  molasses,  one  small  egg.  Steam  one- 
half  hour. 

Nunn's  Puffs. 

Seven-eighths  cup  of  bread  flour,  one  cup  of  water,  one- 
fourth  cup  of  butter,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  four 
eggs.  Boil  the  water,  salt,  and  butter.  Put  into  this  the 
whole  quantity  of  flour,  and  stir,  cook  well.  Cool  a  lit- 
tle, and  stir  in  the  eggs  one  at  a  time,  as  in  cream  puffs. 
Stir  five  minutes  after  adding  each  egg.  Fry  by  tea- 
spoonfuls  fifteen  minutes  in  moderately  hot  fat.  Dust 
with  powdered  sugar,  and  serve  as  any  fritter. 

Cream  Puffs  No.  1. 

One  cup  of  boiling  water,  one  cup  of  flour  (heaping), 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  whole  eggs,  and  whites 
of  three  more,  one-fourth  cup  butter.  Boil  the  water, 
salt,  and  butter.  When  boiling,  add  the  dry  flour,  and  stir 
well  for  five  minutes.  When  cool,  add  the  eggs,  one  at 
a  time,  thoroughly  incorporating  each  before  adding  an- 
other. When  all  are  in,  drop  the  batter  by  the  spoonful 
on  a  buttered  tin.  Bake  from  twenty  to  thirty  minutes. 


350  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

They  should  be  a  delicate  brown  all  over.     Do  not  open 
the  oven  door  for  twenty  minutes  after  putting  them  in. 

Cream  Puffs  No.  2. 

Three- fourths  of  a  cup  of  flour  (Pillsbury's  Best),  or 
equally  strong  bread  flour,  one-half  of  a  cup  of  water,  one 
whole  egg,  whites  of  two  eggs,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
melted  butter.  Make  same  as  No.  i. 

Filling  for  Cream  Puffs— Class  Rule- 

One-half  cup  of  milk,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  corn- 
starch,  two  tabiespoonfuls  of  cream,  one-half  teaspoon- 
ful  of  flavoring,  three  level  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one- 
half  of  an  egg  white.  Heat  the  milk  to  boiling  point,  and 
stir  in  the  sugar  and  cornstarch  mixed  together.  When 
cooked,  add  the  cream,  the  egg  white,  and  the  flavoring. 
Two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  may  be  used  in  place  of  the 
cornstarch. 

Filling  for  Cream  Puffs — Home  Rule. 

One  cup  of  milk,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  cornstarch, 
four  level  tablespoonfuls  of  cream,  six  level  tablespoonfuls 
of  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  flavoring,  one  egg  white. 
Make  same  as  directed  above. 

Apple  Pudding. 

Butter  the  dish,  put  in  a  dust  of  sugar,  and  cover  the 
bottom  with  tart  apples,  pared,  cored,  and  quartered.  Put 
over  them  a  shake  of  salt,  then  crusts  of  bread  which  have 
been  cut  thin  and  soaked  in  water.  Cover  the  apples  out 
of  sight,  then  put  on  another  layer  of  apples,  and  cover 
the  top  with  crumbs,  prepared  by  using  one  teaspoonful 
of  melted  butter  to  every  two  tablespoonfuls  of  bread 
crumbs.  Cook  covered  one-half  hour,  then  remove  the 
cover,  and  brown.  Serve  with  a  hard  sauce  or  with  cara- 
mel sauce. 

Brown  Betty. 

Butter  the  baking  dish,  pare,  core  and  quarter  tart  ap- 
ples, put  in  the  dish,  and  sprinkle  with  sugar.  Then  put 


DESSERTS.  351 

on  buttered  crumbs,  sprinkle  a  little  sugar  over  them,  and 
bake.  Serve  hot  with  a  liquid  satice,  cream,  or  caramel 
sauce  (page  355). 

Apple  Snow. 

Three  large,  tart  apples.  Three  egg  whites,  one-half 
cup  of  granulated  sugar.  Have  the  eggs  and  apples  cold. 
Put  the  egg  whites  into  a  bowl,  put  in  three  tablespoonfuls 
of  sugar,  beat  a  little  with  a  spoon :, or  egg  beater,  put  in 
more  sugar,  beat  again,  and  so  on  until  all  of  the  sugar 
is  in,  then  beat  until  the  mixture  will  stand  in  points  when 
the  beater  is  lifted  from  it.  Core  the  apples,  and  grate 
into  the  mixture,  grating  only  a  portion  at  one  time,  then 
beating  in  with  the  mixture.  Flavor  with  almond  extract, 
pile  in  a  glass  dish,  and  set  on  ice  until  needed.  Do  not 
make  the  snow  long  before  using,  as  the  apple  will  dis- 
color. This  amount  will  serve  seven  or  eight  people. 
Serve  with  or  without  whipped  cream. 

Baked  Apple  Pudding. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one-half  cup  of  flour,  one- 
quarter  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  bak- 
ing powder  (or  use  sour  milk  and  one-eighth  teaspoonful 
of  soda),  one  very  small  egg,  one-fourth  cup  of  milk. 
Beat  the  yolk  of  the  egg  light  and  add  the  salt,  the  milk, 
and  part  of  the  flour.  Beat  up  well,  then  add  the  melted 
butter.  Beat  this  in,  then  add  remainder  of  flour. 
Whether  baking  powder  or  soda  is  used,  put  it  in  part  of 
the  flour,  and  put  in  at  the  last,  just  before  folding  in 
the  well-beaten  egg  white.  Put  the  batter  in  buttered 
muffin  tins,  and  on  the  top  of  each  lay  a  ring  of  apple 
(apples  pared,  cored,  and  cut  in  rings  one-fourth  inch 
thick)  dipped  in  sugar.  Bake  in  oven  same  as  for  muf- 
fins. Serve  with  a  lemon  sauce. 

Dried  Apple  Pudding. 

Make  a  batter  same  as  for  baked  apple  pudding,  except 
use  one-fourth  cup  of  the  water  in  which  the  apples  have 
soaked  over  night,  instead  of  milk.  Use  the  dried  apples 


352  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

after  soaking  over  night  the  same  as  the  fresh  apples. 
Dried  apples  are  better  chopped  and  mixed  with  the 
dough.  These  puddings  may  be  steamed  if  desired,  but 
are  better  baked. 

Indian  Pudding. 

Beat  three  eggs,  and  mix  with  one  pint  of  milk,  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  and  one  pint  of  cornmeal.  Add 
one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  ginger,  or  enough  to  flavor  nice- 
ly. Put  into  a  pan  having  a  large  diameter,  but  shallow. 
Let  set  on  top  of  stove,  and  keep  mixed  until  meal  swells, 
then  put  in  oven,  and  bake  ten  or  twelve  hours,  or  until  it 
wheys.  Serve  with  cream. 

Suet  Pudding — For  Home  Work. 

Three  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  cup  chopped 
suet,  one  cup  raisins,  one  cup  molasses,  one  cup  sweet 
milk,  four  cups  flour,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  soda  (for 
the  molasses).  Steam  three  hours.  Put  together  same  as 
fig  pudding. 

Suet  Pudding — For  Class  Work. 

Three  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  cup  chopped 
suet,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  one-fourth 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-fourth  cup  of  milk.  Cook 
until  done. 

Bread  Pudding. 

Slice  the  bread,  and  spread  daintily  with  butter.  Then 
make  a  custard,  using  two  eggs  to  one  pint  of  milk, 
sweeten  to  taste,  dust  with  salt,  then  pour  the  mixture  over 
the  bread  in  a  baking  dish,  and  bake.  Flavor  to  taste. 

Steamed  Fruit  Pudding. 

Flour,  three  cups ;  suet,  picked  fine,  one  cup ;  sour  milk, 
one  cup ;  soda,  one-half  teaspoonful ;  salt,  one  teaspoonful. 
Mix  the  flour  and  the  suet  well  together.  Mix  the 
soda  in  a  little  flour,  and  add  at  the  last.  Put  the 
flour  and  the  salt  into  the  milk,  and  mix  all  together.  Add 
two  well-beaten  eggs.  Put  into  a  pudding  mold  about  an 


DESSERTS.  353 

inch  of  the  batter,  then  put  in  a  layer  of  fresh  fruit,  pared, 
cored,  and  sweetened,  put  in  more  batter,  then  more  fruit, 
etc.,  until  all  is  used.  Do  not  fill  nearer  than  three  inches 
of  the  top.  Serve  with  creamy  sauce,  foamy  sauce,  or 
something  of  the  kind. 
Rhubarb  Charlotte. 

Butter  a  granite  ware  or  earthen  pudding  pan,  and  lay 
on  the  bottom  slices  of  stale  bread  which  have  been  cut 
very  thin, — crusts  are  just  as  good.  On  this  put  raw 
pieplant  (plenty),  and  sugar  to  sweeten  it.  Then  put  on 
another  layer  of  bread  and  pieplant  and  sugar,  and  on 
the  top  put  buttered  crumbs.  Bake  in  the  oven  until  the 
pieplant  is  done  and  the  crumbs  brown.  Serve  with 
whipped  cream. 

Pieplant  Shortcake 

Two  cups  of  flour,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one- 
half  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  cup  of  sour  milk,  one-third 
cup  of  fat.  Sift  the  soda  with  the  flour,  put  in  the  salt, 
and  rub  the  fat  into  the  flour.  Mix  with  the  milk,  manipu- 
lating as  little  as  possible.  Roll  one-half  inch  thick. 
When  baked,  cut  with  a  hot  knife,  and  butter  the  cut  sur- 
faces slightly.  Spread  pieplant  on  the  buttered  sur- 
faces, placing  one  on  top  of  the  other.  Serve  with  whipped 
cream. 

Filling. 

Cut  tender,  fresh  pieplant  in  inch  lengths,  and  put  to* 
cook  with  only  the  water  that  clings  to  it  when  washing. 
When  done,  sweeten  and  remove  from  the  stove. 

Maple  Sugar  Sauce. 

Maple  sugar  one-fourth  of  a  pound.  Melt  in  one-half 
cup  of  water,  and  boil  until  it  threads,  then  add  the  juice 
of  one  lemon.  Beat  the  whites  of  two  eggs  to  a  stiff  foam, 
put  them  and  the  syrup  together  the  same  as  a  boiled 
frosting,  and  when  they  are  well  mixed  add  one-half  cup 
of  cream. 
12 


354  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

In  making  pudding  sauces  or  creams  where  the  egg 
white  is  to  be  beaten  stiff  and  the  cooked  mixture  poured 
over  it,  it  is  better  to  beat  the  egg  white  and  sugar  to- 
gether, as  for  a  meringue.  This  gives  a  smoother  sauce. 

Hard  Sauce  for  Hot  Puddings. 

One-fourth  cup  of  butter,  one-half  cup  of  powdered 
sugar,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  lemon  or  vanilla  extract, 
a  little  nutmeg.  Rub  the  butter  until  creamy  in  a  warm 
bowl,  add  the  sugar  gradually,  then  the  flavoring.  Pack 
it  smoothly  in  a  small  dish,  and  keep  on  ice  until  per- 
fectly hard. 

Lemon  Sauce. 

Sugar,  two  measures;  water,  one  measure;  lemon  juice 
(one  lemon  to  one  quart).  Flavor  with  lemon  peel.  If 
flour  is  used  to  thicken,  take  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
and  one  of  butter  to  one  cup  of  liquid.  If  cornstarch  or 
arrowroot  is  used,  take  one-half  as  much  as  of  flour. 

Foamy  Sauce. 

One-half  cup  butter,  one  cup  powdered  sugar,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  vanilla,  two  teaspoonfuls  fruit  juice  or  syrup, 
one-quarter  cup  boiling  water,  white  of  egg,  beaten  to  a 
foam.  Cream  the  butter,  add  the  sugar,  vanilla,  and  fruit 
juice.  Just  before  serving  add  the  boiling  water,  stir 
well,  then  add  the  egg  white  and  beat  until  foamy. 

Cream  Sauce. 

One-fourth  cup  of  butter,  one-half  cup  of  powdered 
sugar,  sifted,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  lemon  juice  and  a  lit- 
tle nutmeg,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  cream.  Cream 
the  butter,  add  the  sugar  slowly,  then  the  lemon  juice  and 
the  cream.  Beat  well,  and  just  before  serving  place  the 
bowl  over  hot  water,  and  stir  well  until  smooth  and  creamy, 
but  do  not  melt  the  butter.  When  the  lemon  juice  and  the 
cream  are  added,  the  sauce  has  a  curdled  appearance. 
This  is  removed  by  thorough  beating,  and  by  heating  just 
enough  to  blend  the  materials  smoothly. 


DESSERTS.  355 

Caramel  Cream. 

One  teaspoonful  of  flour,  one  teaspoonful  of  water. 
Mix  together,  and  add  one  cup  of  sweet  milk.  Simmer 
slowly  five  minutes.  Pour  this  over  the  well-beaten  yolk 
of  a  small  egg,  and  cook  until  it  coats  the  spoon.  Add 
four  tablespoonfuls  of  strong  caramel.  Pour  over  the 
well-beaten  white  of  the  egg,  to  which  one  teaspoonful  of 
sugar  was  added  when  first  beginning  to  beat  the  egg. 
Serve  with  apple  pudding. 

Caramel  Sauce. 

Hot  water,  one  pint ;  sugar,  one  cup ;  cornstarch,  one 
tablespoonful,  or  flour,  two  tablespoonfuls.  Put  the  sugar 
and  about  half  a  cup  of  water  in  a  saucepan  on  the  range. 
When  it  begins  to  brown,  put  where  it  will  cook  more 
slowly.  When  as  brown  as  desired,  add  enough  hot  water 
to  make  the  pint.  Put  in  another  vessel,  add  the  flour 
mixed  with  a  little  cold  water,  and  cook  until  it  thickens. 
Do  not  stir  while  the  sugar  is  browning,  or  it  will  grain. 
Serve  with  brown  betty  and  steamed  fruit  puddings. 

Sauce  for  Rich  Pudding. 

One  egg,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  beaten  to  a 
cream,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  one-third  of  a  cup  of 
granulated  sugar.  Cook  sugar  and  water  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  pour  over  the  beaten  yolk,  stir  in  butter,  and 
whip  white  into  it.  Flavor  with  one-half  teaspoonful  of 
vanilla. 

Vinegar  Sauce. 

One  cup  brown  sugar  (maple,  best),  butter  the  size  of 
an  egg,  one  tablespoonful  flour,  a  pinch  of  salt.  Stir  to- 
gether, and  pour  over  them  a  cup  of  boiling  water.  Let 
boil,  and  add  one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar,  and  flavor  with 
lemon- or  vanilla,  two  teaspoonfuls. 


356  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Mock  Cream. 

One  teaspoonful  flour,  one-half  teaspoonful  butter. 
Cook  together  until  well  mixed.  Add  one  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  and  let  simmer  five  minutes.  Pour  over  the  well- 
beaten  yolk  of  a  small  egg.  Put  again  into  the  saucepan, 
and  cook  until  it  coats  the  spoon.  Remove  from  the  fire, 
and  when  cooled  a  little,  pour  over  the  well-beaten  white, 
to  which  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar  has  been  added.  Add 
a  dash  of  salt,  and  flavor  with  vanilla.  Mock  cream  may 
foe  used  with  apple  dumplings.  The  flavor  may  be  varied 
iby  using  two  tablespoonfuls  of  caramel. 

Sauce  for  Plain  Pudding. 

Butter,  one-fourth  cup ;  sugar,  one  cup ;  water,  one- 
fourth  cup;  flour,  enough  to  thicken  (one  teaspoonful). 
Mix  flour  with  a  little  of  the  sugar.  Cream  remainder  of 
the  butter  and  sugar.  Pour  hot  water  over  the  flour  and 
cook.  Flavor  with  lemon  and  nutmeg.  Beat  the  cream- 
ed butter  into  it. 


PASTRY. 

Pastry  may  be  made  with  lard,  cream,  cottolene,  suet, 
drippings,  butter,  cottosuet  (a  mixture  of  cottonseed  oil 
and  suet),  chicken  fat,  or  mutton  fat,  but  butter  is  best, 
because  it  has  the  most  pleasant  flavor. 

For  plain  paste,  use  as  much  water  as  shortening.  To 
make  a  rather  rich  plain  paste,  use  half  as  much  water  as 
shortening.  In  all  cases  cut  the  butter  or  fat  into  the 
flour,  and  then  add  the  water.  The  less  water  used  after 
the  particles  can  be  made  to  adhere  the  better,  if  you  wish 
a  brittle  crust.  Always  have  the  water  cold  as  possible. 
Use  plenty  of  extra  flour  to  prevent  sticking,  if  necessary. 
Put  together  quickly,  and  handle  as  little  as  possible,  be- 
cause handling  makes  the  dough  tough.  To  roll  di- 
rectly from  you  is  considered  better  than  back  and  forth. 


DESSERTS.  357 

Make  upper  crust  first,  and  put  to  chill  while  you  roll  the 
under  crust.  Make  the  lower  crust  a  little  thicker  than 
you  make  the  upper  one,  flour  well,  and  set  in  a  cool  place 
while  the  filling  is  prepared. 

A  lemon  or  custard  pie  should  be  baked  in  a  deep  pan. 
If  you  must  use  a  shallow  tin,  cut  the  crust  very  large, 
and  make  stand  up  by  pinching  into  place.  In  making 
such  one-crusted  pies  as  are  better  baked  and  filled  after- 
wards, as  cream  pies,  pierce  the  crust  with  a  fork  or  pastry 
j agger  before  putting  into  the  oven. 

The  trimmings  of  piecrust  can  be  used  for  cheese 
straws,  tarts,  or  rissoles. 

In  plum,  cherry,  and  peach  pies,  crack  a  few  pits  and 
cook  in  the  pie  with  the  fruit  for  flavor. 

Do  not  cut  fruit  too  small,  as  it  loses  much  of  its  flavor 
on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  surface  exposed.  Al- 
ways mix  an  acid  with  an  insipid  fruit,  as  currants  with 
huckleberries.  In  apple  pies,  allow  the  natural  flavor  to 
predominate  when  apples  are  at  their  best,  for  there  is  no 
gain  in  wholesomeness  or  palability  in  the  use  of  spices. 
Lay  the  fruit  well  up  about  the  edges,  and  bind  the  crusts 
together  by  wetting  with  egg  white  or  cold  water,  and 
pressing  well  before  putting  to  bake.  When  the  juices 
exude  in  cooking,  a  little  dry  flour  mixed  with  the  sweet- 
ening will  prevent  it.  In  using  juicy  fruits,  it  is  always 
better  to  bake  the  crusts  with  a  paper  or  linen  filling,  and 
cook  the  filling  while  the  crusts  bake,  and  put  together 
hot  as  can  be  handled,  but  if  one  prefers  to  cook  the  fruit 
in  the  pie,  the  juice  can  be  confined  by  using  a  strip  of 
white  muslin  wet  and  applied  around  the  edge  of  the  pie 
before  putting  it  into  the  oven.  Remove  the  cloth  as  soon 
as  the  pie  comes  from  the  oven.  Exuding  juices  may  be 
prevented  also  by  making  a  little  paper  funnel,  and  plac- 
ing it  in  a  perforation  in  the  crust  of  the  raw  pie  to  allow 
the  steam  to  escape.  To  prevent  the  lower  piecrust  soak- 
ing, paint  with  egg  white,  or  dust  with  flour  before  put- 
ting the  fruit  into  it. 


358  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Puff  Paste. 

One  pound  of  butter,  one  pound  of  flour,  two  egg 
whites.  Scald  a  large  bowl,  and  chill  with  ice  water. 
Work  the  butter  in  the  bowl  in  ice  water  until  soft  and 
waxy.  Chop  one-eighth  of  the  butter  in  the  flour  until 
fine,  then  rub  with  a  spoon.  Put  the  egg  whites,  un- 
beaten into  the  flour,  and  mix  with  ice  water  until  you 
have  a  dough  just  stiff  enough  to  handle  easily  without 
flour.  Work  this  dough  until  it  blisters,  then  put  the  re- 
mainder of  the  butter  in,  in  a  square  piece,  and  fold  the 
dough  over  it,  same  as  piecrust.  Then  roll  a  little  on 
one  side,  then  as  much  on  the  other  side,  and  fold  over 
again  like  a  piecrust,  and  roll  not  more  than  seven  times, 
nor  less  than  five,  and  let  cool  between  each  rolling  fif- 
teen or  twenty  minutes,  but  not  too  much,  or  it  will 
crack  and  will  not  puff  when  baked.  Cut  with  a  sharp 
knife  or  cutter  dipped  in  hot  water  to  prevent  the  edges 
being  pressed  together.  Let  cool  after  cutting  out  before 
putting  into  the  oven.  Have  the  oven  as  hot  as  you  can 
without  burning, — have  it  hottest  on  the  bottom.  Protect 
the  top  at  first  by  covering  with  white  paper. 

There  are  different  ways  of  mixing.  The  flour,  salt, 
and  ice  water  may  be  put  together,  and  pounded  and 
kneaded  until  smooth  and  elastic  before  putting  in  the 
butter.  The  usual  way  is  to  put  one-third  or  one-fourth 
of  the  butter  with  the  ice  water,  flour  and  salt,  by  rubbing 
into  the  flour,  then  fold  the  rest  of  the  butter  in  the  dough. 

Baking  Powder  Piecrust. 

Baking  powder,  one- fourth  teaspoonful;  salt,  one- 
eighth  teaspoonful ;  fat,  one-third  cup ;  flour,  one  and  one- 
quarter  cups.  Mix  dry  ingredients  with  the  flour.  Rub 
fat  into  flour.  Mix  with  one-half  cup  (scant)  of  cold 
water.  Cut  in  two  parts,  and  roll  each  piece  separately. 

Flaky  Piecrust — For  Home  Work. 

Use  six  ounces  of  butter  (three- fourths  of  a  cup),  and 
one-half  pound  of  flour  (two  cups)  for  one  pie  with  two 


DESSERTS.  359 

crusts,  and  one  pie  with  a  single  crust.  Have  all  the  in- 
gredients and  utensils  to  be  used  cold  as  possible.  Set 
them  on  ice  for  a  while  before  preparing  the  pastry,  then 
place  the  butter  and  flour  in  chopping  bowl,  and  chop 
until  the  butter  is  in  pieces  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  Pour 
in  ice  water  a  little  at  a  time,  using  only  enough  to  make 
the  dough  stick  together.  Mix  with  a  fork  by  pulling 
particles  aside  as  moistened,  and  add  water  to  dry  flour 
each  time,  put  on  the  molding  board,  roll  three  times, 
folding  each  time  with  a  knife,  and  turning  half  round 
each  time. 

For  simple  flaky  piecrust,  use  two  cups  of  flour  and  one- 
half  cup  of  butter  (in  piecrust  one-half  butter  and  one- 
half  lard  may  be  used  if  desired). 

Flaky  Piecrust— For  Class  Work. 

Two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  fat,  one-half  cup  of  flour, 
two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  ice  water,  one  saltspoonful  of 
salt.  Put  together  as  above. 

Custard  Pie— For  Class  Work. 

Put  one  tablespoonful  of  beaten  egg  in  a  bowl,  add  to 
this  the  sugar  (one  tablespoonful),  and  the  flavoring.  Pour 
the  milk  (one  cup)  into  it,  and  stir  well.  Turn  the  cus- 
tard into  the  crust  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven,  until  a 
knife,  if  thrust  into  the  center  of  the  pie,  comes  out  clean. 

Custard  Pie— Home  Work. 

Three  eggs,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one-fourth 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  three  and  a  half  cups  of  sweet  milk. 
Flavor  with  nutmeg.  Put  together  and  bake  same  as 
above. 

Pastry— For  One  Pie  Crust 

One-half  cup  of  flour,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  fat, 
two  tablespoonfuls  cold  water,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of 
salt.  Rub  fat  and  flour  together  with  a  fork  or  a  limber 


360  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

knife.  Add  the  water  a  little  at  a  time,  pulling  the  dough 
to  one  side  as  the  flour  is  wet,  and  adding  water  to  dry 
flour  each  time.  Use  as  little  water  as  will  make  the 
dough  adhere. 

Pastry— With  Baking  Powder. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  sift  one- fourth  teaspoonful 
baking  powder  with  the  flour  before  rubbing  fat  into  it. 

Pastry— For  Class  Work. 

One-fourth  cup  of  flour,  one  saltspoonful  of  baking 
powder,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  salt ;  one  level  tablespoon- 
ful  fat  (if  baking  powder  is  used  leave  out  half  the  fat),, 
one  tablespoonful  cold  water. 

Cream  Pie — Hot- Water  Crust. 

One-half  cup  of  flour,  one  tablespoonful  of  lard,  one 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  boiling  wa- 
ter. Rub  fat  and  flour  together,  and  mix  with  boiling^ 
water. 

Filling  for  Cream  Pie. 

One  cup  of  milk,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one 
small  egg  yolk,  four  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter.  Heat  butter  and  flour  together. 
After  they  are  well  mixed,  pour  on  the  milk,  and  cook. 
Pour  this  over  the  beaten  egg  yolk,  sweeten,  and  flavor. 
Pour  this  into  the  crust,  which  is  baked.  Cover  the  top- 
with  a  meringue  made  from  the  egg  white. 

Apple  Custard  Pie. 

Make  a  crust  same  as  for  custard  pie.  For  the  filling 
cook  dried  apples  as  for  sauce,  letting  nearly  all  of  the 
water  cook  out.  Put  the  apples  through  a  colander  or 
sieve,  add  six  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  and  one  egg,  beat 
all  well  together,  and  add  a  few  drops  of  lemon  extract,, 
or  a  little  cinnamon,  and  a  dust  of  salt.  Then  stir  in  one 


DESSERTS.  361 

cup  of  sweet  milk.  Pour  into  the  crust  and  bake  same  as 
custard  pie.  When  done,  cover  with  a  meringue,  or  let 
cool,  and  cover  the  top  with  grated  cheese. 

Dried  Apple  Pie. 

Prepare  the  apples,  wash,  and  soak  overnight.  Make 
the  piecrust,  sweeten  the  apples,  and  put  them  in,  and 
bake.  Cook  slowly  until  the  apples  are  done. 

One-Crust  Apple  Pie. 

Pare,  core  and  cut  the  apples  into  eighths.  Put  the 
apples  in  layers,  having  first  buttered  the  bottom  and  sides 
of  the  granite  tin  in  which  it  is  to  be  baked.  Sprinkle 
sugar  enough  to  sweeten  the  apples,  then  place  the  crust, 
and  bake. 

Pan  Dowdy. 

Make  same  as  one-crust  apple  pie,  except  sweeten  with 
molasses. 

Gooseberry  Pie. 

Remove  the  stems  and  the  blossom  ends  from  the  ber- 
ries. Wash  fruit.  Mix  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
with  the  sweetening  for  each  pie.  Use  half  as  much  sugar 
as  berries,  if  the  berries  are  young;  otherwise  more.  Stir 
the  sugar  and  flour  into  the  berries,  fill  the  pie,  and  bake. 
Wet  the  lower  crust  along  the  top  with  cold  water,  and 
press  the  upper  crust  well  down,  or  use  one  of  the  devices 
given  in  the  article  on  pastry. 

Peach  Pie. 

Make  a  lower  crust,  fill  with  peanut  shells  or  crushed 
white  paper.  Put  the  upper  crust  on,  and  bake.  Cook 
the  peaches  until  soft,  then  add  the  sugar,  with  two  level 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and  cook  until  it  thickens.  Pour 
into  the  crust  while  both  it  and  the  peaches  are  hot.  Let 
get  cold,  and  serve  with  whipped  cream. 


362  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Lemon  Pie  (Makes  Two  Pies) . 

Juice  and  grated  rind  of  two  large  lemons.  One  and 
one-half  cups  of  sugar,  one  scant  tablespoonful  butter, 
three  cups  boiling  water.  With  the  sugar  mix  six  level  ta- 
blespoonfuls  of  cornstarch ;  put  the  water,  lemon  rind,  and 
salt  with  these  and  boil  until  stiff  and  clear.  Pour  this 
over  the  beaten  egg  yolk,  stirring  constantly  and  pouring 
slowly.  Return  to  the  fire  and  cook  the  egg,  stir  in  the 
lemon  juice  and  turn  into  the  crust.  Use  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  for  a  meringue. 

Lemon  Pie— Class  Rule. 

Juice  and  grated  rind  of  one-half  a  large  lemon,  one- 
fourth  of  a  cup  plus  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  butter,  three-quarters  of  a  cup  of  boiling 
water.  This  makes  a  pie  about  one-third  the  usual  size. 
Make  and  put  together  the  same  as  directed  in  home  rule. 

To  Make  Meringue  for  Pie. 

In  making  a  meringue  use  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar 
to  one  egg  white.  Put  part  of  the  sugar  on  the  egg 
white  before  beating  at  all,  beat  this  just  enough  to  thor- 
oughly incorporate  the  two,  then  add  the  remainder  of 
the  sugar,  and  beat  until,  when  the  beater  is  lifted  through 
the  beaten  white,  it  will  stand  in  points.  Spread  on  the 
pie,  and  brown  a  golden  brown  in  a  moderate  oven.  A 
wire  spoon  beater  is  best  for  beating  egg  whites. 

Huckleberry  Pie. 

Mix  with  the  huckleberries  about  one-third  as  many 
currants  or  red  raspberries.  Sprinkle  over  them  about 
two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  sugar,  with  which  has  been  mixed 
two  heaping  dessertspoonfuls  of  flour.  Finish  as  any  two- 
crusted  pie. 

Cherry  Pie. 

Line  the  pie  tin  with  piecrust.  Wash  and  stone  the 
cherries,  fill  the  crust,  and  sprinkle  over  them  one  cup  of 


DESSERTS.  363 

sugar,  with  which  has  been  mixed  two  level  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  flour.  Put  on  the  top  crust,  and  bake,  being  sure 
that  the  edges  are  well  pressed  together.  The  cloth  bands 
spoken  of  in  the  article  on  pastry  may  be  needed. 

Rhubarb  Pie. 

Wash  the  rhubarb,  peel,,  if  necessary,  and  cut  into  inch 
lengths.  Pour  boiling  water  over  it,  and  let  stand  a  few 
minutes,  then  drain  and  cook  in  as  little  water  as  possible, 
and  fill  a  previously  baked  crust  as  described  for  linen  pie ; 
or  mix  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  with  the  sugar,  and 
stir  the  mixture  into  the  rhubarb  raw,  then  fill  the  pie  and 
bake.  Use  the  cloth  or  paper  tube  described  on  page  357 
with  this  pie. 

Linen  Pie. 

In  a  linen  pie,  the  crust  is  made,  and  the  pie  filled  with 
tissue  paper,  and  the  crusts  baked  thus,  then  the  top  crust 
is  lifted  off  and  the  filling  put  into  the  pie,  and  the  crust 
replaced.  The  object  is  to  avoid  having  a  soggy  lower 
crust.  It  is  well  to  flour  the  lower  crust  or  brush  over 
with  egg  white  to  prevent  soaking  when  the  fruit  is  cooked 
in  the  pie. 

Apple  Pie. 

Make  a  crust  the  same  as  for  any  pie,  fill  with  tart  ap- 
ples, pared,  cored  and  cut  in  thick  slices,  sprinkle  with 
sugar  and  dot  with  bits  of  butter  if  desired.  Put  on  the 
top  crust,  press  the  edges  firmly  together,  and  bake  until 
the  fruit  is  done. 

Potato  Pie  No.  1. 

Over  one-half  pint  of  grated  raw  potatoes  pour  one 
quart  of  boiling  milk,  and  let  cook  in  double  boiler  until 
the  potato  is  done.  Let  cool,  and  add  three  well-beaten 
eggs.  Sweeten  to  taste,  and  flavor  with  nutmeg.  Bake 
same  as  custard  pies,  and  use  fresh. 


364  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Potato  Pie  No.  2. 

One  cup  sweet  milk,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one  small  egg,  one-half  cup  of 
mashed  potato,  one-quarter  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-eighth 
teaspoonful  of  grated  nutmeg,  one  teaspoonful  of  fruit 
vinegar.  Cook  the  milk,  butter  and  flour  together  until 
like  thick  cream.  Add  the  vinegar  and  salt,  pour  boiling 
hot  over  the  beaten  egg  yolk,  and  mix  well.  Add  the 
mashed  potato,  and  beat  until  smooth  and  thoroughly 
mixed.  Return  to  the  fire,  and  let  boil,  and  fold  in  the 
egg  white,  and  pour  the  mixture  into  a  previously  baked 
crust,  same  as  in  making  a  lemon  pie. 

Squash  Pie. 

Crust :  One  and  one-fourth  cups  of  flour,  one-half  cup 
(scant)  of  fat, — lard  or  butter, — one- fourth  teaspoonful  of 
salt.  Just  enough  ice  water  to  make  the  mixture  stick  to- 
gether. Use  extra  flour  for  kneading.  One-half  table- 
spoonful  of  baking  powder  may  be  used,  then  use  only 
one-third  cup  (scant)  of  fat. 

Filling :  One  and  one-half  cups  of  stewed  sifted  squash 
(cook  until  dry),  one  cup  of  boiling  milk,  one-fourth  cup 
of  granulated  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of  brown  sugar,  one- 
half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  each  cin- 
namon, cloves  and  ginger,  one  egg.  Beat  egg  with  the 
squash,  add  the  sugar,  which  has  had  the  spices  mixed 
with  it,  and,  last,  the  milk,  stirring  as  it  is  added,  fill  the 
crust,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven.  Cover  the  top  with  grated 
cheese  or  a  meringue. 

Squash  Pie— Class  Rule. 

One-half  cup  of  squash,  cooked  dry  and  made  smooth, 
one-third  cup  of  milk,  one  tablespoonful  of  sugar,  one  ta- 
blespoonful  of  sorghum  molasses,  one  and  one-half  table- 
spoonfuls  of  egg,  one-sixth  teaspoonful  of  spices.  This 
makes  a  pie  about  one-third  the  usual  size.  Make  and 
bake  same  as  above. 


DESSERTS.  365 

Baked  Apple  Dumplings. 

Make  a  plain  crust  same  as  for  pie.  Core  and  pare  tart 
apples  and  cut  into  quarters,  then  halve  each  quarter  at 
right  angles  to  its  length.  Roll  the  dough  as  for  pies,  and 
cut  into  pieces  large  enough  to  wrap  the  halves  in.  Put 
the  sugared  apples  in,  fold  the  edges  together,  and  pinch 
to  make  them  adhere.  Place  in  the  pan  open  side  up, 
and  bake  until  the  apples  are  tender.  Serve  with  sugar 
and  cream,  or  with  a  made  sauce,  such  as  caramel  cream. 

Fritter  Batter  for  Fruit  or  Fish. 

One-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  egg  yolk,  four 
tablespoonfuls  of  milk  or  water  and  two  teaspoonfuls 
of  olive  oil  or  clarified  butter,  one-half  cup  of  flour.  If 
fruit  is  used  put  sugar  in  batter.  Beat  the  egg  well,  and 
add  the  oil  slowly,  then  add  the  milk  and  flour  alternately 
— the  salt  may  be  put  in  the  flour.  Beat  the  white  of  the 
egg  very  stiff,  and  fold  in  last. 

When  you  wish  to  use  the  batter  for  both  fruit  and 
clam  fritters,  divide  the  mixture  into  two  parts.  To  part 
one,  add  a  scant  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice, 
one  round  tablespoonful  of  minced  clam,  or  dip  clams 
until  coated,  and  fry.  When  clams  are  to  be  dipped  in  the 
fritter  batter,  clam  broth  may  be  used  instead  of  milk. 
Use  part  two  for  the  fruit. 

Eissoles. 

Use  any  kind  of  pastry  dough,  and  make  and  bake  same 
as  a  turnover,  or  seal  edges  well  and  fry  in  deep  fat. 

Mince  Meat  for  Pie. 

Two  pounds  of  lean  beef,  one  pound  of  beef  suet,  one 
and  one-half  pounds  of  sugar,  one  cup  sorghum  molasses, 
one  quart  of  sweet  cider,  fruit  juice  or  weak  vinegar,  two 
pounds  of  raisins,  two  pounds  of  currants,  two  lemons 
(juice  and  grated  rinds),  two  tablespoonfuls  of  ground 
cinnamon,  one-half  tablespoonful  of  ground  cloves,  one- 
half  tablespoonful  of  ground  allspice,  four  pounds  of  tart 


366  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

apples,  one  pound  of  citron.  Boil  the  beef  and  suet  to- 
gether in  as  little  water  as  is  practicable,  until  tender. 
Drain,  let  cool,  free  from  bone,  etc.,  and  chop.  Clean  cur- 
rants and  raisins,  pare  apples,  and  cut  citron  fine.  Chop 
apples  and  raisins.  Mix  spices  and  sugar  together,  and 
put  into  the  liquid.  Add  the  dried  fruit  and  apples,  and 
bring  to  the  boiling  point,  then  add  the  chopped  meat, 
and  when  it  again  boils  set  aside  to  cool.  It  makes  bet- 
ter pies  if  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  days  until  the  flavors 
are  thoroughly  blended. 

Cheese  Straws  No.  1. 

Roll  out  scraps  of  pie  crust  thin,  as  for  pies,  and  cut 
with  a  sharp  knife  into  strips  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
wide.  Lay  in  a  pan  so  that  there  will  be  a  fourth  inch 
space  between,  cover  thickly  with  grated  cheese,  sprinkle 
with  salt  and  pepper  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven.  When  done 
remove  at  once  from  the  pan,  and  cut  apart.  Serve  with 
salads. 

Cheese  Straws  No.  2. 

Roll  out  scraps  of  pie  dough  thin,  as  for  pies.  Cover 
one-half  the  surface  thickly  with  American  cheese  (grat- 
ed), dust  with  salt  and  pepper,  fold  the  other  half  over 
this,  roll  thin  again,  cut  into  strips,  and  bake  as  in  No.  I. 

FROZEN  DISHES. 

There  are  various  mixtures  under  the  general  head  of 
"ice  creams."  There  is  one  which  is  made  of  pure  cream 
or  of  cream  and  milk,  with  sweetening  and  flavoring, 
and  another  which  has  a  custard  as  a  basis.  This  custard 
may  be  made  of  milk  and  eggs,  or  these  two,  plus  corn- 
starch  or  arrowroot.  Arrowroot  and  the  whites  of  egg 
are  the  most  satisfactory  of  anything  of  this  kind  if  the 
cream  is  to  be  tinted,  as  it  is  clearer.  A  pure  cream  ice 
cream  will  be  smoother  if  the  cream  is  scalded  and  the 
sugar  added  to  the  hot  cream.  Parfaits,  mousses,  bis- 


FROZEN   DISHES.  367 

ques,  and  other  things  of  a  porous  character  are  classified 
under  this  head,  but  differ  in  the  manner  of  freezing.  The 
others  are  all  frozen  in  the  same  way. 

Directions  for  Freezing  Ice  Creams. 

See  that  the  freezer  is  in  good  condition,  and  that  all 
parts  are  at  hand.  The  more  paddles  a  freezer  has,  the 
finer  the  cream.  Scald  the  tin  can,  and  see  that  it  is  in  the 
socket  in  the  bottom.  Put  the  ice  into  a  coarse  bag,  and 
pound  it  fine.  The  cream  is  more  velvety  with  fine  than 
with  coarser  ice.  Salt  of  medium  coarseness  is  best  be- 
cause it  can  be  packed  more  closely.  Put  the  can  in  place, 
pour  the  prepared  cream  into  it,  put  in  the  flange,  cover, 
and  put  on  the  crank.  See  that  it  turns  easily,  and  then 
proceed  to  pack  with  salt  and  ice.  First  put  in  a  layer 
of  ice,  then  a  layer  of  salt,  using  about  three  times  as 
much  ice  as  salt.  May  mix  them  in  the  pan  before  pack- 
ing around  the  can.  When  ready  to  freeze,  remove  the 
cover  carefully,  and  put  the  egg  whites  into  the  cream. 

The  freezer  tub  should  have  a  hole  near  the  top 
only,  and  this  should  be  left  open  to  prevent  the  salt 
water  running  into  the  cream  can.  When  the  cream 
is  frozen,  carefully  remove  the  cover  to  prevent  bits 
of  ice  entering  the  can,  take  out  the  flange,  stir  the 
cream  down,  and  replace  the  cover,  fit  a  cork  tightly  in  the 
hole  at  the  top,  put  a  cup  over  this,  pound  the  ice  down 
at  the  sides,  and  cover  the  top  with  ice. 

If  the  cream  is  to  be  molded,  rinse  the  mold  with  cold 
water,  and  as  soon  as  the  flange  is  removed,  and  the  cream 
well  beaten,  fill  the  molds,  pressing  down  to  make  sure 
that  the  patterns  are  filled,  and  the  cream  solid.  Moisten 
a  piece  of  thin,  firm  paper,  put  it  over,  and  fit  the  cover 
tightly.  Bind  a  buttered  cloth  firmly  around  the  opening 
to  keep  the  salt  water  out,  then  imbed  the  mold  in  ice  and 
salt.  Individual  molds  need  to  be  firmer  than  large 
molds.  It  is  well  to  use  a  little  gelatine  in  creams  for 
molding  if  the  day  is  very  warm.  Pack  individual  molds 


368  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

in  a  pail,  pack  the  pail,  and  use  a  larger  proportion  of  salt. 
When  a  cream  and  an  ice  are  molded  together,  put  the  ice 
above,  as  it  is  apt  to  melt  more  readily  than  the  cream  if 
it  touches  the  plate  on  which  it  is  placed.  To  dip  the 
cream  out  when  serving,  put  a  spoon  in  hot  water,  and  cut 
out  a  cone. 

Plain  Ice  Cream. 

One  quart  of  cream  of  medium  thickness.  Heat  the 
cream  scalding  hot,  and  dissolve  one  cup  of  sugar  in  it. 
When  cold,  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vanilla  and"  the  same 
of  lemon  extract.  Put  in  egg  whites  as  directed  above. 
Cream  should  not  be  frozen  too  rapidly,  as  it  is  apt  to  be 
coarse.  Twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes  is  a  good  length 
of  time  for  three  quarts  or  less. 

Caramel  Ice  Cream. 

Make  same  as  plain  ice  cream,  except  sweeten  with  a 
thick  caramel  syrup,  and  use  twice  as  much  as  would  be 
needed  of  a  plain  syrup  of  sugar  and  water  boiled  to- 
gether because  the  sugar,  when  caramelized,  is  less  sweet, 
or  use  enough  caramel  for  flavor  and  color,  and  finish 
sweetening  with  plain  sugar. 

Chocolate  Ice  Cream  No.  1. 

Prepare  the  cream  and  sweeten  as  for  plain  ice  cream. 
Put  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cocoa  in  a  saucepan,  and  add 
enough  cold  water  to  make  it  a  thin  batter.  Stir  over  the 
fire  until  cooked,  then  stir  into  the  hot  cream.  When  cold, 
flavor  with  one  tablespoonful  of  extract  of  vanilla,  put  in 
the  egg  white  after  packing,  and  just  before  beginning  to 
turn,  same  as  before. 

Chocolate  Ice  Cream  No.  2. 

Milk,  one  pint;  eggs,  two,  or  one  large  one;  flour,  two 
tablespoonfuls ;  sugar,  one  cup ;  cream,  one  quart ;  vanilla, 
one  tablespoonful.  If  you  make  the  chocolate  without 
cream,  use  whole  milk.  Chocolate,  two  ounces  of  Baker's. 
Scrape  chocolate  and  melt  with  equal  quantity  of  sugar 
and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water.  Cook  milk,  flour  and 


FROZEN   DISHES.  369 

sugar  together,  and  pour  over  the  eggs.    Cool,  flavor,  and 

freeze. 

Glace  Cream. 

This  is  made  by  adding  to  plain  ice  cream,  when  nearly 
frozen,  the  following  mixture :  Boil  together  one  cup  of 
sugar,  one  cup  of  water,  and  one-eighth  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  cream  of  tartar  until  it  will  form  a  soft  ball  when 
dropped  in  cold  water.  Pour  this  boiling  hot,  in  a  small 
stream  over  the  well-beaten  whites  of  three  eggs,  and  beat 
until  it  is  cool.  Flavor  same  as  the  ice  cream.  Open  the 
freezer,  put  the  mixture  in,  and  turn  the  freezer  until  it  is 
thoroughly  mixed.  A  bomb  glace  is  a  glace  cream  and  an 
ice  of  some  fruit  molded  in  a  spherical  form.  The  fruit 
usually  is  on  the  outside,  completely  covering  the  cream. 

A  biscuit  glace  is  a  glace  cream  molded  in  individual 
forms.  These  biscuits  are  usually  composed  of  two  kinds 
of  cream,  or  of  an  ice  and  a  cream  packed  in  the  small 
paper  cases  in  which  they  are  served,  and  then  put  into 
a  freezing  can  until  very  hard. 
Ice  Cream — Custard  Basis. 

Make  a  boiled  custard,  using  two  large  eggs  to  a  pint  of 
milk.  Beat  the  eggs,  have  the  milk  boiling  hot,  and  pour 
a  little  at  a  time  on  the  eggs,  stirring  well.  When  ready, 
put  the  whole  in  the  double  boiler,  add  the  sugar,  and 
cook  until  the  custard  coats  the  spoon.  When  cool,  use 
two  pints  of  cream  and  one  pint  of  the  custard,  flavor,  and 
freeze  as  before. 

Any  variety  of  ice  cream  desired  can  be  made  from 
this  by  varying  the  flavoring,  adding  chopped  nuts,  etc. 
Mousses,  etc.,  are  frozen  by  packing  the  molds  in  ice,  and 
leaving  untouched  for  several  hours. 
Coffee  Parfait. 

Parfaits  are  frozen  like  ices.  One  cup  of  double  cream, 
one-third  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of  black  coffee. 
Mix  the  coffee  and  the  cream,  whip,  skim  off  the  froth, 
mold,  and  pack. 


370  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Strawberry  Mousse. 

Have  double  cream  very  cold,  in  an  earthen  bowl,  beat 
and  drain.  The  bowl,  cream,  and  whip  should  be  cold 
for  beating  cream.  When  not  cold,  the  cream  will  make 
butter.  Mix  with  the  cream  enough  strawberry  syrup  to 
flavor  it,  put  into  a  mold,  pack  in  salt  and  ice,  and  let 
stand  several  hours.  The  syrup  both  sweetens  and  flavors 
the  cream. 

Tutti  Frutti  Ice  Cream. 

This  cream  is  a  plain  ice  cream,  with  French  candied 
fruits  cut  fine  and  added  when  nearly  frozen.   Fruits  must 
not  be  added  long  enough  before  serving  to  freeze  hard, 
as  the  object  desired  is  to  simply  chill  them  well. 
Fruit  Ice  Cream. 

Use  either  a  pure  cream  or  a  custard  basis.  Sweeten  as 
before,  but  do  not  flavor.  When  about  half  frozen,  re- 
move the  cover,  and  add  the  fruit,  finely  pulped  and 
sweetened  to  taste.  Peaches  should  be  cooked,  unless 
very  soft,  and  put  through  a  puree  sieve.  Strawberries 
and  raspberries  should  be  put  through  a  sieve  to  re- 
move the  seeds,  Bananas,  if  sliced  fine,  can  be  used  as 
they  are.  If  the  fruit  is  in  pieces,  care  must  be  taken  to 
not  freeze  the  fruit  hard. 

Ice  Cream  Flavored  with  Fruit  Syrups. 

Strawberry  syrup,  raspberry  syrup,  etc.,  may  be  easily 
canned  while  we  have  fruit,  and  they  make  the  most 
delicious  creams  when  fresh  fruit  cannot  be  had.  Such 
fruit  syrups  should  be  boiled  until  thick,  and  sweetened, 
as  a  thin  fruit  juice  will  make  a  watery  cream. 

Hokey  Pokey  Ice  Cream. 

This  has  condensed  milk  as  its  basis,  and  requires  a  little 
higher  flavor  than  an  ordinary  ice  cream,  otherwise  it  is 
made  in  the  same  way  as  plain  cream. 

Brown  Bread  Ice  Cream. 

Brown  bread  ice  cream,  macaroon  ice  cream,  etc.,  are 
simply  plain  ice  cream  with  a  portion  of  fine  crumbs 
stirred  in  just  at  the  last. 


FROZEN   DISHES.  371 

Pistachio  Ice  Cream. 

Make  the  same  as  directed  for  plain  ice  cream,  except 
leave  out  the  lemon  and  vanilla  extract,  and  put  in  ex- 
tract of  pistachio,  and  tint  with  spinach  coloring,  or  use 
the  pounded  pistachio  nuts,  if  you  can  get  them. 
Frozen  Fig  Pudding. 

Milk,  one  quart ;  eggs,  four ;  sugar,  one  cup ;  gelatine, 
one  tablespoonful  (unphosphated)  ;  vanilla  extract,  one 
tablespoonful ;  figs,  one-half  pound;  walnuts,  one-half 
pound.  Soak  the  gelatine  in  cold  water  to  cover.  Put  the 
gelatine  in  a  bowl,  and  pour  one-half  cup  of  hot  milk  over 
it.  Make  a  custard  of  the  sugar,  the  eggs  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  milk.  Pour  the  hot  custard  over  the  gela- 
tine, and  stir  until  dissolved.  Let  cool,  and  freeze.  When 
nearly  frozen,  add  the  figs  and  nuts,  cut  fine.  Let  stand 
packed  one  hour  before  serving. 

Water  Ices. 

These  are  usually  made  of  fruit  juices,  sugar,  and  wa- 
ter. Sometimes  white  of  egg  is  added.  Sorbets,  granites, 
and  punches  are  properly  served  in  the  midst  of  a  dinner, 
immediately  after  a  roast.  Sherbets  are  usually  served  at 
the  end  of  a  dinner,  but  are  sometimes  served  instead  of 
a  punch.  Sorbets  and  punches  are  simply  iced  or  partially 
frozen.  They  should  have  smooth,  even,  cream-like  con- 
sistency. .Sherbets,  when  frozen  in  an  ice-cream  freezer 
with  many  paddles,  especially  when  white  of  egg  is  used 
in  their  composition,  are  very  smooth  and  creamy.  Some 
object  to  this  because  they  do  not  mold  well.  When  a 
syrup  is  made  with  the  water  and  sugar  before  adding  to 
the  fruit  juice,  the  sherbet  is  finer  grained  than  when  the 
sugar  and  water  are  added  cold.  If  the  sherbet  is  to  be 
molded  with  ice  cream,  it  is  better  to  mix  the  ingredients 
cold,  and  freeze  without  the  flange,  scraping  from  the 
sides  of  the  can  with  a  wooden  spoon,  and  beating  well 
occasionally.  Sherbets  are  usually  served  in  sherbet  cups. 
Orange  sherbet  is  nice  served  in  orange  cups.  Granites, 
as  the  name  indicates,  should  always  be  rough  and  coarse- 


372  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

grained.  They  and  sherbets  should  be  frozen  as  firm  as 
any  ice  cream.  Granites  are  made  by  packing  sweetened 
fruit  juices  and  water  in  ice  and  coarse  salt  for  three  or 
four  hours,  or  more,  and  stirring  little. 

Liquors  are  often  used  in  ices,  but  they  should  never 
enter  into  any  dish  except  in  cases  of  severe  illness,  and 
then  only  by  a  physician's  order. 

Pineapple  Sorbet. 

Pare  a  fresh  pineapple,  and  take  out  the  eyes.  Shred  the 
pineapple  with  a  silver  fork.  Mix  with  it,  in  an  earthen 
bowl,  two  cups  of  sugar.  Set  closely  covered  in  a  cool 
place,  and  when  the  juice  is  extracted  as  much  as  possible, 
put  into  a  jelly  bag,  and  squeeze.  Measure  the  juice  and 
pour  an  equal  amount  of  boiling  water  on  the  squeezed 
pulp  in  a  bowl;  stir  well,  put  into  the  bag,  and  squeeze, 
and  add  this  liquid  to  the  juice.  Put  into  a  saucepan,  and 
let  boil  a  few  minutes.  Remove,  and  when  cold  add  the 
juice  of  two  oranges  and  one  lemon.  Put  into  the  freezer, 
and  turn  until  a  mushy  ice  is  formed,  and  serve.  In  con- 
sistency it  is  like  a  half-frozen  sherbet.  Serve  in  glass 
cups. 

Pineapple  Sherbet. 

One  pint  of  water  and  one  pint  of  sugar,  cooked  to- 
gether into  a  syrup,  one  can  of  pineapple  unsweetened, 
or  one  fresh  pineapple  shredded,  juice  of  two  lemons,  one 
egg  white,  beaten  stiff.  Mix  the  syrup,  pineapple,  and 
lemon  juice,  put  into  the  freezer,  freeze  until  it  begins  to 
get  white,  and  looks  like  snow  and  water  mixed  together, 
then  add  the  beaten  egg  white,  and  freeze  until  it  looks 
snow  white  and  creamy.  It  should  swell  one-third  or 
more. 

Banana  Sherbet. 

Juice  of  three  lemons  (three-fourths  cup),  one  and  one- 
half  cups  of  sugar,  two  and  one-fourth  cups  of  water,  nine 
bananas,  thinly  sliced,  three  egg  whites,  unbeaten.  Mix 
all  together,  and  freeze. 


FROZEN    DISHES.  373 

Milk  Sherbet. 

One  level  tablespoonful  of  gelatine  soaked  in  one-fourth 
of  a  cup  of  cold  water.  One  pint  of  sugar,  one  pint  of 
milk,  juice  of  five  lemons.  Heat  the  milk,  and  dissolve 
the  sugar  in  it,  then  pour  over  the  soaked  gelatine,  and 
stir  until  dissolved.  Mix  all  ingredients  together  and 
freeze  at  once. 

Currant  Sherbet. 

One  pint  of  currant  juice.  Make  a  heavy  syrup  of  one 
pint  of  water  and  one  pint  of  sugar.  When  thick,  stir 
it  into  the  currant  juice,  and  add  enough  water  to  make  a 
quart.  Put  the  liquid  into  the  freezer,  drop  in  the  white 
of  one  egg,  and  freeze  same  as  ice  cream.  Raspberry  and 
currant  together  make  a  fine  sherbet.  Use  two-thirds 
currant  juice  and  one-third  red  raspberry  juice,  and 
sweeten  to  taste. 

Panama  Sherbet. 

One  cup  of  orange  juice,  one  pint  of  apple  juice,  from 
stewed  apples,  one  cup  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  gela- 
tine, one  tablespoonful  of  cold  water.  Soak  the  gelatine 
in  the  water.  Put  the  sugar  into  the  apple  juice,  and  boil 
a  very  little.  Then  pour  over  the  gelatine  and  stir  until 
dissolved.  When  cold,  put  all  together,  and  freeze  as  di- 
rected on  page  367. 

Lemon  Sherbet. 

Juice  of  four  lemons (  i  cup),  rind  of  one  lemon,  grated, 
juice  of  one  orange,  one  pint  of  water,  one  pint  of  sugar. 
Cook  the  sugar  with  the  orange  peel  and  water  until  the 
liquid  is  flavored,  strain  out  the  peel,  and  proceed  as 
above. 

Orange  Sherbet. 

Two  cups  of  orange  juice,  three  tablespoons  of  lemon 
juice,  one  cup  of  granulated  sugar,  one  and  one-half  cups 
of  water ;  may  use  equal  parts  of  fruit  juice  and  water  if 
desired.  Cook  the  grated  rind  of  one  lemon,  the  sugar 
and  water  together  five  minutes,  add  the  fruit  juice,  put 


374  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

into  the  freezer,  add  a  dust  of  salt  and  the  white  of  one 
egg  and  freeze. 

Ginger  Sherbet. 

Two  cups  of  orange  juice,  three  tablespoon fuls  lemon 
juice,  one  cup  granulated  sugar,  one  cup  of  water.  Flavor 
with  ginger.  Equal  parts  of  juice  and  water  may  be  used. 
Cook  the  sugar  and  water  together  five  minutes,  then  add 
the  other  ingredients,  and  freeze  as  any  sherbet. 

Lemon  Punch. 

Juice  of  six  large  lemons  and  one  orange.  Grated  rind 
of  one  lemon.  Measure  the  fruit  juice,  and  add  nearly  an 
equal  amount  of  water  and  one  pint  of  sugar.  Put  over 
the  fire  and  let  boil  ten  minutes,  then  set  aside  to  cool; 
when  cold,  pack  in  freezer.  Put  over  the  fire  the  grated 
lemon  rind,  one  cup  of  water,  and  one-half,  a  cup  of  sugar. 
Boil  to  the  soft-balling  stage,  then  strain,  and  pour  boil- 
ing hot  in  a  small  stream  over  the  beaten  whites  of  three 
eggs,  pouring  slowly,  and  beating  as  in  making  boiled 
icing.  Continue  the  beating  until  the  mixture  is  nearly 
cold.  Freeze  the  liquid  in  the  freezer  to  the  consistency 
of  a  half-frozen  ice,  put  the  meringue  in,  and  turn  the 
freezer  until  thoroughly  mixed.  Serve  in  cups,  same  as 
sherbet. 

W.  C.  T.  U.  Punch. 

Three  teaspoonfuls  of  Ceylon  tea,  steeped,  cooled  and 
strained,  one  quart  boiling  water,  one  block  ice  five  inches 
square,  juice  of  four  lemons,  juice  of  one  orange,  one  and 
one-half  cups  of  sugar,  one  quart  of  Apollinaris  water, 
one  box  of  strawberries.  Put  the  ice  in  the  punch  bowl, 
mix  all  the  ingredients,  and  pour  on  the  ice.  Let  stand  an 
hour,  and  serve. 

Maccdoine  Punch. 

One  pint  of  hot  water,  pour  over  the  grated  yellow 
rind  of  one  lemon  and  one  pound  of  sugar  and  boil  five 
minutes,  strain  and  while  still  hot  slice  into  it  two  me- 


FRUITS.  375 

dium-sized  bananas  or  three  large  peaches  (canned 
peaches  may  be  used  and  put  in  when  cold).  Add  a  cup 
of  grated  pineapple  (either  fresh  or  canned)  and  one 
pint  of  canned  cherries.  When  ready  to  serve  add  the 
juice  of  seven  lemons  and  two  oranges.  Put  a  large 
block  of  ice  in  the  center  of  the  punch  bowl,  add  two 
quarts  of  water  and  let  stand  two  hours  in  a  cool  place. 
At  the  last  moment  add  a  few  fine  strawberries.  This 
will  serve  twenty-five  or  thirty  people. 
Strawberry  Granite. 

Mash  the  strawberries,  and  squeeze  the  juice  ou|t 
through  a  cloth.  Mix  water  with  the  pulp,  and  squeeze 
again.  Use  equal  amounts  of  the  pure  juice  and  the  liquid 
from  washing  the  pulp.  Stir  in  sugar  until  it  is. a  little 
sweeter  than  you  would  want  to  drink,  as  all  frozen 
dishes  taste  less  sweet  after  than  before  freezing.  Add  the 
juice  of  one  lemon.  Pour  into  the  freezer,  let  stand  sev- 
eral hours,  loosening  from  the  sides  and  stirring  often 
enough  to  prevent  freezing  in  large  lumps,  but  do  not 
beat  enough  to  make  smooth. 
Frozen  Rice  Pudding. 

One-half  cup  of  rice,  six  cups  of  whole  milk,  three- 
fourths  of  a  cup  of  sugar.  Wash  the  rice,  put  it  to  cook  in 
the  milk,  and  set  it  on  the  back  of  the  range,  where  it  will 
cook  slowly  until  the  rice  is  perfectly  soft.  Then  strain 
through  a  sieve.  Add  the  .sugar,  and  stir  well.  Then  add 
one-fourth  as  much  cream  as  there  is  of  the  strained  rice, 
flavor,  and  finish  as  the  plain  ice  cream.  The  milk  should 
be  evaporated  to  the  consistency  of  cream  when  the  rice 
is  strained. 

FRUITS. 

As  to  whether  raw  fruits  are  better  than  cooked,  there  is 
a  diversity  of  opinion.  Much  depends  upon  the  individual. 
When  one  can  take  raw  fruit  without  disturbing  any  of 

References:  Boston  Cook  Book — Lincoln — pp.  361,  362; 
Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  674-689;  Buckeye  Cook  Book, 
pp.  407,  408. 


376 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


the  digestive  processes,  it  is  well  to  do  so.  The  fruit  acids 
have  medicinal  properties,  and  aid  in  toning  the  system. 
It  is  evident,  also,  that  when  fruit  is  eaten  raw,  none  of  its 
food  value  is  lost,  as  in  cooking. 

Fruits  which  are  eaten  raw  should  be  mature,  free  from 


blemish,  and  perfectly  ripe.  No  fruit  or  vegetable  which 
has  begun  to  decay  should  be  eaten  raw.  Such  food  is 
not  only  unsanitary,  but  is  usually  lacking  in  flavor. 

All  fruit  which  is  to  be  eaten  raw  should  be  washed 
before  serving.  The  fact  is  that  most  fruit  has  passed 
through  several  hands  before  reaching  the  table. 


FRUITS.  377 

Strawberries  and  Blackberries. 

Strawberries,  blackberries,  and  all  soft,  small  fruits 
should  be  washed  by  putting  into  a  colander,  and  moving  it 
up  and  down  in  clear  water,  thus  removing  all  sand  and 
dust.  Never  wash  them  long  before  serving,  because  they 
soften  quickly  when  wet.  Wash  strawberries  before  hull- 
ing. 
To  Prepare  Oranges  and  Lemons. 

Oranges  and  lemons  should  be  scrubbed  with  a  vege- 
table brush.  Apples  and  pears  will  have  a  better  gloss  if 
rubbed  well  with  a  dry  cloth.  Peaches  should  merely  have 
the  fuzz  rubbed  off  carefully.  To  prepare  grapes  for  the 
table,  remove  all  imperfect  ones  with  a  sharp  knife,  then 
wash  each  bunch,  by  moving  about  in  water.  Cherries  and 
strawberries,  when  large  and  nice,  may  be  served  on  the 
stems  as  picked,  each  guest  being  supplied  with  a  small 
dish  of  powdered  sugar.  In  arranging  fruits  for  the  table, 
it  is  frequently  well  to  serve  different  kinds  on  the  same 
dish,  and  so  combine  colors  and  varieties  as  to  give  a 
pleasing  effect.  A  few  green  leaves  interspersed  with  the 
fruit  beautifies  the  dish.  Raw  fruits  should  always  be 
served  cold,  and  for  the  sake  of  variety,  they  are  some- 
times frozen  before  serving. 
To  Prepare  Pineapple  for  the  Table. 

Pare,  and  with  a  sharp  knife  remove  the  eyes.  Shred 
fine  with  a  silver  fork.  Put  a  layer  of  pineapple  in  a  serv- 
ing dish,  and  sprinkle  with  sugar,  continue  thus  until  the 
dish  is  filled.  Cover  closely,  and  keep  cool  until  serving 
time. 

To  Prepare  Watermelon  for  the  Table. 

Wash  the  outside  clean,  and  put  in  the  cellar  or  in 
cold  water  until  thoroughly  cold.  Then  cut  in  slices,  or 
in  any  of  the  fancy  shapes,  before  putting  on  the  table. 
Serve  on  a  plate  with  a  fork. 

It  is  better  to  bring  melons  from  the  garden  early  in 
the  morning,  when  possible,  as  they  are  then  cool,  and 
can  be  easily  kept  so. 


378  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  Prepare  Cantaloupes  for  the  Table. 

See  that  they  are  cold,  clean,  and  wiped  dry.  If  small, 
halve  them,  remove  the  seeds,  and  serve  a  whole  melon 
to  each  person.  They  may  be  served  with  a  piece  of  ice 
in  each  half.  If  the  melons  are  large,  cut  in  eighths  or 
fourths,  and  serve  a  piece  to  each  person. 

To  Cut  Melons  in  Fancy  Shapes. 

Wipe  the  outside  of  the  melon  until  perfectly  clean. 
Cut  a  thin  slice  off  from  each  end  of  the  melon,  then  cut 
in  half,  putting  on  the  plate  with  the  blossom  or  stem 
end  down.  With  a  large,  sharp  knife  cut  into  wedge- 


Some  Ways  in  Which  Watermelons  may  be  cut 
for  Serving. 

shaped  pieces  which  measure  about  two  inches  at  the  top 
on  the  rind.  Do  not  remove  the  pieces  as  they  are  cut, 
but  allow  them  to  lie  in  the  natural  position  when  car- 
ried to  the  table.  Or  cut  wedge-shaped  pieces  by  cutting 
one  piece  two  inches  at  the  top,  and  running  to  a  point  at 
the  other  end  the  next  piece  will  be  pointed  at  the  top, 
and  large  at  the  bottom.  Now  remove  the  pieces  which 
are  wide  at  the  top,  and  leave  the  others  in  place  on  the 
platter,  the  effect  is  very  pleasing. 

Another  way  is  to  cut  the  melons  in  half,  lengthwise, 
then  cut  off  a  thin  slice  of  the  rind,  so  that  the  melon  will 


FRUITS.  379 

rest  firmly  on  the  platter.  With  a  large  spoon,  serve  by 
the  spoonful  in  cone-shaped  pieces  from  the  boat-shaped 
rind.  The  platter  may  be  covered  with  leaves,  green  or  of 
autumn  tints,  and  the  melon  placed  on  them. 

Frozen  Fruits. 

Fruits,  although  termed  "frozen  fruits,"  are  not  frozen, 
— they  are  merely  thoroughly  chilled.  Berries  and  fruits 
of  almost  all  kinds  are  sweetened  and  packed  about  one 
hour  before  ready  for  use.  Small  canteloupes  may  be  cut 
in  halves,  salted  a  little,  and  packed  in  the  freezer.  Can- 
teloupes and  other  melons  may  be  taken  out  in  uniform 
pieces,  and  a  little  salt  sprinkled  on  those  which  need  it 
before  packing  them  in  the  freezer.  Bananas  are  peeled 
and  sprinkled  with  sugar  and  lemon  juice.  Tomatoes 
are  best  chilled  whole,  and  sliced  when  served. 

Chilled  Beverages. 

Tea,  coffee,  egg-nog,  meat  broths,  etc.,  should  be 
chilled  by  having  the  ice  around,  and  not  in,  them. 

Frozen  Raspberries  and  Currants. 

Look  over  three  cups  of  raspberries,  wash  them,  place 
in  a  bowl,  and  stir  into  them  one  cup  of  red  currants,  and 
one  and  one-fourth  cups  of  sugar,  and  mash.  Let  stand 
in  a  cool  place  one  hour,  then  add  to  them  one  cup  of 
water,  and  freeze  same  as  ice  cream. 

Frozen  Blackberries. 

Look  over  one  quart  of  nice  blackberries,  wash,  mash, 
and  stir  into  them  one  cup  of  sugar.  Let  stand  one  hour, 
then  add  one  cup  of  water  and  the  juice  of  one  lemon,  and 
and  freeze  as  any  ice. 

Frozen  Strawberries. 

Pick  over  and  wash  one  quart  of  strawberries.  Mash, 
and  add  two  cups  of  sugar.  Let  stand  an  hour  or  two, 
then  add  the  juice  of  one-half  a  lemon,  and  one  cup  of 


380  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

water.     Stir  well  together,  break  in  the  white  of  one  egg, 
freeze  same  as  any  ice. 

Frozen  Apples. 

Prepare,  cook,  and  sweeten  to  taste  tart  apples  (cook 
in  a  little  water  or  steam),  mash  through  a  colander,  and, 
when  ready  to  freeze,  add  for  every  four  apples  (one  pint 
of  pulp)  used,  the  juice  of  an  orange  and  one-half  cup  of 
water.  Freeze  as  other  ices. 

Peaches,  Apricots  and  Pears. 

These  may  be  frozen  in  a  similar  way,  but  none  of  them 
are  so  satisfactory  as  chilled  raw  fruits.  To  prepare 
chilled  peaches,  pare  and  pit  one  quart  of  perfectly  ripe 
freestone  peaches,  pack  a  layer  of  peaches  in  the  freezer, 
and  add  sugar  to  sweeten,  then  put  in  another  layer  of 
peaches,  more  sugar,  and  so  on  until  there  is  a  sufficient 
amount.  Pack  in  ice  and  salt,  and  let  stand  two  or  three 
hours,  that  they  may  become  thoroughly  chilled,  but  not 
frozen  hard.  Serve  with  whipped  cream.  Any  kind  of 
soft,  raw  fruit  may  be  chilled  the  same  as  the  peaches. 

Frozen  Watermelon. 

Use  only  the  red  part  of  the  melon,  and  remove,  the 
seeds.  Cut  in  small  strips  about  two  inches  long,  pack 
in  the  freezer,  and  pack  the  freezer-can  in  ice  and  salt, 
using  an  excess  of  salt,  and  let  stand  two  or  three  hours, 
until  near  freezing,  but  not  hard.  Serve  piled  prettily  in 
a  dish. 

Frozen  Cantaloupe. 

Prepare  the  cantaloupe  by  paring  and  removing  the 
seeds,  and  cutting  into  long  narrow  strips,  and  chill  in 
same  manner  as  directed  for  watermelon. 

NUTS.* 

Nuts  may  be  cracked  before  serving,  or  served  whole, 

as  one  wishes.     When   served  whole,   nuts  must*  be  of 

.  *U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Office  of  Exp.  Stations  Bulletin  No.  107. 


NUTS.  381 

such  varieties  as  will  readily  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the 
silver  nut  cracker.  Salt  should  always  be  at  hand  when 
nuts  are  served.  Almonds  may  be  served  shelled,  un- 
shelled,  or  blanched.  They  are  neither  so  fine  in  appear- 
ance or  flavor  when  blanched  as  when  served  in  the 
shell.  Raisins  in  handsome  clusters  may  be  interspersed 
among  the  nuts.  Salted  almonds  are  served  alone  on 
small,  handsome,  round  or  oval-shaped  dishes.  French 
chestnuts  are  usually  roasted,  and  served  in  the  shell. 

To  Roast  Chestnuts. 

Cover  the  chestnuts  with  boiling  water,  and  cook  ten 
minutes.  Drain,  spread  them  in  a  dripping  pan,  and 
bake  in  the  oven  ten  minutes.  Serve  hot.  Chestnuts  are 
sometimes  slitted  with  a  knife  before  putting  to  cook,  to 
facilitate  opening,  but  they  lose  much  flavor  when  boiled 
thus,  and  should  be  steamed,  if  possible. 

To  Blanch  Almonds. 

Put  shelled  almonds  in  a  bowl,  and  pour  boiling  water 
over  them.  When  the  skins  slip,  pour  the  water  off,  and 
skin  the  almonds. 

Salted  Peanuts. 

In  a  pan,  place  shelled  peanuts  sufficient  to  cover  the 
bottom, — about  a  pint  of  them;  pour  on  one  tablespoon- 
ful  of  olive  oil,  or  enough,  by  shaking  them  about,  to 
grease  them  well,  then  sprinkle  well  with  salt,  and  place 
in  a  hot  oven  and  brown,  shaking  occasionally. 

Salted  Almonds. 

Jordan  almonds  are  preferable,  and  it  is  better  to  buy 
them  shelled  than  unshelled.  Put  into  a  small  pan  one 
teaspoonful  of  olive  oil,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  salt,  then 
add  the  almonds,  and  shake  about  until  coated  with  oil. 
If  butter  is  used,  take  twice  the  quantity,  and  get  the  al- 
monds" hot  before  adding  the  butter.  To  this  quantity  of 


382  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

fat  use  one  cup  of  almonds.  Put  the  prepared  almonds 
in  an  oven  same  heat  as  for  bread,  and  stir  and  shake  fre- 
quently to  prevent  burning.  Shake  fine  salt  over  them 
again  as  they  come  from  the  oven. 

References:  Common  Sense  in  the  Household — Harland — 
pp.  442-445;  Parloa's  Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  71,  72,  694-699; 
Boston  Cook  Book — Lincoln — pp.  391,  392;  Food  Products  of 
the  World — Green — pp.  217-232;  Elements  of  Cookery — Wil- 
liams &  Fisher — pp.  226-231;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin No.  122,  pp.  18-22. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

DIETARIES  AND  BILLS  OF  FARE.* 

Experiments  in  the  feeding  of  domestic  animals  have 
been  made  in  experiment  stations  and  elsewhere  during  a 
considerable  length  of  time,  and  the  results  have  been  care- 
fully studied  by  stock  owners.  Similar  experiments  have 
been  made  to  ascertain  the  value  of  different  foods  and 
combinations  of  foods  for  human  beings.  These  trials 
have  been  carried  on  during  a  shorter  time,  and  their 
results  have  probably  been  less  widely  disseminated.  In- 
vestigations along  these  two  lines  follow  the  same  general 
principles.  In  some  cases  the  results  of  investigations 
concerning  the  problems  relating  to  nutrition  in  a 
food  for  man  can  be  utilized  in  stock  feeding.  The 
cereals,  for  example,  are  used  as  food  for  both  man  and 
the  lower  animals,  and  when  their  chemical  composition 
is  known,  it  serves  in  both  cases.  Potatoes,  when  not  too 
expensive,  are  similarly  used.  Human-food  investigations 
have  been  carried  on  in  the  United  States  to  some  extent 
during  the  last  twelve  or  fourteen  years,  but  it  is  only 
since  1894  that  an  annual  appropriation  has  been  made  for 
the  study  of  the  food  and  nutrition  of  man.  One  branch 
of  this  food  investigation  is  known  as  "study  of  die- 
taries." The  object  of  these  investigations  is  to  ascertain 
the  kinds  and  amounts  of  food  consumed  by  peo- 
ple of  different  occupation,  age,  sex,  and  environ- 
ment. The  investigators  ascertain  what  relation  ex- 
ists between  the  cost  and  the  food  value  of  the  dif- 
ferent food  materials  furnished,  by  finding  the  amount 
of  available  nutrients  in  each.  They  also  ascertain  how 
much  of  the  food  purchased  is  eaten,  and  how  much  is 
wasted,  either  on  the  table  or  in  the  kitchen.  The  periods 
of  investigation  vary  from  a  week  to  four  weeks,  usually. 

*A.  P.  Bryant,  Office  Exp.  Stations. 


384  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE, 

The  time  of  study  is  too  short,  and  the  cases  which  have 
been  studied  are  too  few,  to  warrant  accurate  statements 
on  many  points. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  with  the 
aid  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment  stations, 
has  made  a  few  hundred  such  studies.  The  entire  number 
made  in  this  country  and  others  aggregate  many  hun- 
dreds. People  in  the  same  financial  condition,  and  per- 
forming similar  work,  are  not  found  to  differ  materially 
in  their  food  consumption,  except  in  a  few  cases.  The 
negroes  of  the  south  constitute  one  of  the  most  notable 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  They  consume  large  quan- 
tities of  bacon  and  cornmeal  in  their  diet,  which  leaves 
a  consequent  deficiency  of  tissue-building  material.  It  is 
probable  that  some  of  the  poorer  white  people  in  the 
south  are  likewise  improperly  nourished,  as  they  use  a 
similar  diet.  These  dietary  studies  have  impressed  on  all 
the  very  pleasant  and  encouraging  fact  that  such  institu- 
tions as  that  organized  by  Booker  T.  Washington  at  Tus- 
kegee,  Alabama,  and  the  one  at  Hampton,  Virginia,  have 
modified  to  some  extent  the  diet  of  those  who  have  come 
under  their  influence.  The  following  cases  show  the  con- 
ditions and  illustrate  the  point  in  question  : 

"A  family,  which  may  be  regarded  as  typical,  living  on 
a  plantation  in  Alabama,  and  coming  in  no  way  under 
educational  influences,  had  a  diet  consisting  of  fresh  pork, 
bacon,  butter,  milk,  cornmeal,  and  sugar.  This  diet  fur- 
nished 52  grams  of  protein  and  3,235  calories  of  energy 
per  man  per  day.  Not  very  far  away  lived  another  fam- 
ily, two  of  the  members  of  which  had  come  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Tuskegee  Institute.  The  diet  here  consist- 
ed of  bacon,  eggs,  milk,  butter,  wheat  flour,  cornmeal, 
sugar,  and  molasses.  The  food  per  man  per  day  furnish- 
ed 92  grams  of  protein  and  3,270  calories  of  energy,  or 
nearly  twice  as  much  protein,  and  the  same  energy,  as 
was  obtained  by  the  preceding  family. 

"In  the  outskirts  of  Tuskegee  lived  a  colored  carpenter 


DIETARIES   AND   BILLS   OF  FARE.  385 

who  had  learned  his  trade  at  the  institute,  and  was  quite 
skillful.  His  diet  contained  beef  round,  mutton  leg,  ba- 
con, lard,  chicken,  eggs,  butter,  milk,  wheat  flour,  corn- 
meal,  rolled  oats,  sugar,  molasses,  evaporated  apples,  and 
strawberries, — a  diet  as  varied  as  is  found  in  many  fam- 
ilies in  comfortable  circumstances  in  other  regions.  The 
food  furnished  97  grams  of  protein  and  4,060  calories  of 
energy  per  man  per  day.  These  results  show  more  energy 
than  is  usually  found  in  the  food  consumed  by  persons  at 
moderate  labor.  The  protein  compares  quite  closely  with 
that  found  in  the;  diet  of  the  average  mechanic's  family. 
The  larger  amount  of  energy  is  due  perhaps  to  the  fact 
that  more  muscular  work  was  performed." 

Comparatively  few  accurate  studies  of  the  dietaries  of 
farmers  have  been  made.  The  statistics  now  at  hand 
indicate  that  the  one-sidedness  of  diet  is  greater  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north,  but  there  is  too  little  of  the  muscle- 
forming  foods  consumed,  as  compared  with  the  heat  and 
energy  producing  foods  in  both  localities.  By  comparing 
the  few  dietary  studies  which  have  been  made  among 
farmers  with  those  made  among  well-to-do  people  in  the 
cities  and  towns,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  farmer's  diet  has 
rather  less  protein  and  more  energy-giving  food  than 
that  of  his  city  cousin.  There  is  no  good  reason  for  this.. 
The  well-to-do  farmer  spends  more  money  for  machinery,, 
repairs,  and  taxes  during  the  year  than  the  professional 
man  or  the  mechanic  spends  for  repairs,  taxes,  or  rent 
in  the  city.  The  city  man  can  seldom  buy  as  good  fresh 
fruits  and  vegetables  as  the  farmer  can  produce  in  his 
garden,  while  the  latter  obtains  them  at  much  less  cost. 
The  farmer  can  usually  raise  as  good  winter  vegetables  as 
the  man  in  the  city  can  buy.  The  farmer  gets  as  much 
muscle-forming  material  in  a  bushel  of  beans  as  the  man 
in  the  city,  who  frequently  pays  many  times  the  amount 
they  cost  the  farmer.  Sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  cereals,  and, 
in  some  cases,  flour,  must  be  bought  with  cash  by  both. 

13 


386  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

But  the  farmer  can  produce  cream  to  render  the  cereals 
and  vegetables  palatable,  and  supply  his  table  with  butter 
at  much  less  cost  than  can  be  done  by  the  man  in  the  city 
or  town.  Pure  skim  milk  is  an  excellent  muscle  former, 
and  while  it  costs  the  farmer  very  little,  his  city  cousin 
finds  the  price  of  pure  milk  is  extreme  vigilance,  and  five 
cents  or  more  per  quart.  Fresh  poultry  and  eggs  cost 
the  farmer  very  little,  but  there  are  times  when  it  takes 
more  money  than  the  man  in  town  can  spare  to  procure 
these  products  in  the  market.  Summing  the  matter  up, 
it  would  seem,  then,  that  the  trouble  is  not  in  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  these  needed  nutrients,  but  in  the  fact  that 
country  people  have  given  too  little  thought  to  the  needs 
of  the  human  body.  Vegetables  are  abundant  and  always 
at  hand.  Cereals,  breads,  and  cured  meats  give  too  large 
an  amount  of  starch  and  fat  for  the  other  nutrients  pres- 
ent. This  is  easily  remedied.  In  summer  use  milk,  eggs, 
and  poultry  freely.  In  winter,  slaughter  animals  on 
the  farm  for  food,  pack  the  meat,  and  let  it  freeze.  Farm- 
ers thus  will  have  all  the  best  cuts  at  as  low  prices  as 
others  must  pay  for  the  poorer  ones.  Teach  the  young 
children  to  drink  milk  instead  of  tea  and  coffee,  and  they 
will  be  aided  greatly  in  becoming  strong  and  healthy. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  combining  foods  for 
the  different  meals,  as  the  way  in  which  they  are  some- 
times combined  has  a  bad  effect  upon  both  health  and  the 
purse. 

FATS  AND  OILS  USED  FOR  FOOD. 

The  fatty  portion  of  our  food  is  derived  from  both  ani- 
mal and  vegetable  sources,  but  far  the  larger  portion  is 
from  the  animal  kingdom.  Butter  is  probably  the  most 
pleasant  flavored  and  popular  of  the  animal '  fats,  and 
commands  a  high  price  simply  because  better  flavored  and 
possibly  more  easily  assimilated  than  most  other  animal 
oils.  Olive  oil  holds  a  place  among  vegetable  oils  similar 
to  that  occupied  by  butter  among  animal  fats.  Some 
vegetables  contain  much  oil,  and  large  sums  of  money  and 


DIETARIES   AND  BILLS   OF  FARE.  387 

much  time  have  been  expended  in  endeavoring  to  prepare 
them  for  culinary  purposes. 

Each  fat,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  has  a  flavor  pe- 
culiar to  the  animal  or  vegetable  from  which  it  is  derived, 
hence  in  selecting  fats  for  cooking  food,  as  in  frying  and 
sauteing,  we  must  choose  fat  which  will  combine  har- 
moniously with  the  food  to  be  cooked.  In  frying  food  in 
deep  fat,  the  temperature  of  the  fat  has  much  to  do  with 
the  food  retaining  its  natural  flavor,  or  taking  the  flavor 
of  the  fat  in  which  it  is  cooking.  If  the  fat  is  very  hot 
when  the  food  is  put  in,  it  does  not  impart  its  flavor  to  the 
cooking  food.  The  odor  of  hot  fat  penetrates  all  parts 
of  the  house,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  best  to  have,  if 
possible,  an  odorless  fat ;  in  any  case,  we  must  have  a  pleas- 
ant odored  one.  It  is  generally  believed  that  fats  of  vegeta- 
ble origin  will  bear  a  higher  heat  without  burning  than  ani- 
mal oils  will.  Manufacturers  have  made  great  efforts  to  so 
deodorize  fats  as  to  render  them  fit  for  all  culinary  pur- 
poses, such  as  making  cakes,  etc.,  but  so  far  the*e  are  few, 
if  any,  that  are  entirely  free  from  their  natural  flavor. 
Vegetable  oils  are  usually  liquid  at  all  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, while  many  animal  oils  are  solid  or  semi-solid. 
Lard  leaves  a  coating  on  the  outside  of  food  cooked  in  it, 
and  mutton  or  beef  tallow  cools  quickly,  leaving  a  tallowy 
taste.  Beef  and  lard  are  better  mixed  than  either  alone, 
for  many  purposes. 

To  prevent  fats,  either  animal  or  vegetable,  becoming 
rancid,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place.  All  bits  of 
fat  from  the  kitchen,  except  those  which  are  highly  flavor- 
ed, as  mutton  fat,  turkey  fat,  ham  fat,  etc.,  may  be  mixed 
and  cooked  slowly  over  the  fire  until  they  cease  to  bubble, 
then  strained  through  cheesecloth,  and  used  in  cooking, 
greasing  pans,  etc. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  122;  pp.  16  and  17. 
Food  Products  of  the  World — Green  ;  Johnston's  Encyclope- 
dia; U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  121. 


388.  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Correct  Combinations  of  Different  Food  Materials. 

In  the  combination  of  foods  we  have  striking  illustra- 
tions of  the  necessity  of  exercising  both  science  and  art  in 
cookery.  By  art,  we  mean  the  disposition  or  modification 
of  things  by  human  skill,  to  answer  the  purpose  intended. 
In  order  that  the  food  fulfill  its  mission  in  the  best  man- 
ner, it  must  be  palatable,  digestible,  and  of  such  quantity 
and  quality  of  nutrients  as 'will  meet  all  the  demands  of 
the  system.  The  diet  must  be  sufficiently  varied  to  pre- 
•  vent  its  becoming  distasteful.  Each  meal  must  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  not  tempt  those  at  the  table  to  overeat. 

The  stockman  devotes  much  time,  thought,  skill,  and 
labor  to  ascertaining  the  best  combinations  of  food  for  the 
domestic  animals  under  his  care.  He  first  studies  the 
composition  of  feeding  stuffs,  both  what  he  calls  rough- 
age, as  hay,  etc.,  and  those  which  are  termed  ''concen- 
trates," as  corn,  oats,  and  such  things.  Experimenters  as- 
certain the  average  coefficient  of  digestibility  of  these  dif- 
ferent food  nutrients.  This  accomplished,  they  find  the 
nutritive  ratio,  that  is,  the  ratio  which  exists  between  the 
amount  of  digestible  protein  in  a  given  feeding  stuff,  and 
the  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates  and  ether  extract 
which  it  contains.  While  the  chemist  and  physiologist 
•were  ascertaining  these  things  by  analytical  work  and  di- 
gestion trials,  the  stockman  has  been  conducting  feeding 
trials  to  determine  how  much  protein,  carbohydrates,  etc., 
are  required  to  properly  nurture  farm  animals  under  vari- 
ous conditions. 

We,  who  are  interested  in  the  best  rations  for  human 
beings,  must  master  all  these  questions,  and  more  than 
these,  with  human  foods.  Such  things  as  the  difference 
in  the  digestive  apparatus  of  different  persons,  the  effect 
of  exercise  and  of  rest,  the  consequence  of  the  different 
modes  of  preparation  of  food,  the  effect  of  flavoring  ma- 
terials and  beverages  taken  with  our  meals,  all  complicate 
the  problem  very  much.  There  is  still  another  point  of 
difference.  The  ox  will  eat  his  portion  of  hay  day  after 


DIETARIES   AND  BIDLrS   OP  FARE.  389 

day  in  contentment  and  happiness.  When  the  ox  has  no 
labor  to  perform,  the  stockman  needs  to  give  him  no 
further  attention  than  to  furnish  him  a  maintenance  ra- 
tion. It  is  not  so  with  any  specimen  of  the  genus  homo 
yet  discovered.  Even  when  he  has  need  of  no  further 
food  than  the  amount  necessary  to  enable  the  heart  to 
force  the  blood  currents  through  the  body,  and  give  the 
digestive  and  assimilative  organs  power  to  do  their  work, 
if  he  only  sits  and  breathes,  he  craves  and  needs,  and  per- 
haps demands,  a  variety  of  food. 

Those  who  carry  on  digestive  experiments  on  human 
beings  say  that  they  find  it  practically  impossible,  often,  to 
carry  on  such  an  experiment  longer  than  two  days,  be- 
cause a  single  food,  no  matter  how  palatable  at  first,  be- 
comes so  repugnant  to  the  subject.  Dr.  Livingston,  the 
African  explorer,  says :  "Experience  proves  that  the  Eu- 
ropeans have  greater  endurance  than  the  hardiest  of  the 
meat-eating  Africans."  Another  argument  in  favor  of 
varied  diet.  It  is  claimed  that  too  great  sameness,  long 
continued,  leads  to  an  impairment  of  the  digestive  organs. 
All  this  evidence  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  desire  for  va- 
riety of  food  is  based  upon  physiological  grounds. 

For  our  present  purpose,  general  principles  applicable 
to  all  classes  of  people  will  be  considered.  Those  ques- 
tions which  each  person  must  settle  with  his  own  stomach 
must  be  considered  and  studied  by  each  woman  who  has 
the  special  cases  to  deal  with.  Few  courses  in  a  meal  are 
far  preferable  to  many  courses  for  several  reasons.  Such 
a  meal  affords  sufficient  variety  to  meet  the  idiosyncracies 
of  different  members  of  the  family.  It  gives  a  sufficient 
amount  of  the  different  kinds  of  food  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  system.  It  gives  an  opportunity  for  greater  variety 
at  different  meals,  and  prevents  one  so  soon  tiring  of  any 
certain  kind  of  food.  It  also  relieves  very  much  the 
tendency  to  overeat.  Three  or  four  courses  are  usually 
quite  enough  for  a  family  dinner.  It  is  very  often  well  to 
begin  both  dinner  and  lunch  with  a  soup.  Whether  the 


390  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

soup  contains  much  of  little  nutrition  should  govern,  to 
some  extent  the  remainder  of  the  meal. 

In  planning  a  meal,  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  decide 
what  food  materials  will  furnish  the  needed  nutrients  in 
right  amounts  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  different  mem- 
bers of  the  family,  but  we  must  see  that  we  do  not  choose 
too  many  foods  that  are  slow  of  digestion,  nor  too  large 
a  number  that  digest  very  easily  and  quickly.  When 
foods  are  improperly  combined,  some  portions  are  not  di- 
gested and  assimilated  fully,  and  as  they  lie  in  the  diges- 
tive tract  unused,  poisonous  products  are  liable  to  be 
produced.  "A  daily  ration  consisting  of  milk,  oysters,  and 
rice  would  contain  all  the  nutrients  required  by  the  body, 
and  would  be  of  about  the  proper  bulk  required  for  a 
ration,  but  if  a  laboring  man  were  fed  on  such  a  diet  for 
a  long  time  he  would  experience  hunger,  because  the 
foods  are  so  easily  digested  that  the  digestive  organs  would 
not  have  enough  to  do.  A  ration  consisting  of  roast  pork, 
hard  tack,  bread,  beans,  skim  milk,  cheese,  and  olives 
would  be  exceedingly  slow  of  digestion.  This  ration 
would  contain  all  the  nutrients  required  by  the  body,  but 
discomfort  would  be  experienced  by  many  if  they  at- 
tempted to  digest  such  a  ration."* 

The  way  in  which  improper  combinations  of  food  affect 
the  cost  of  the  nutrients  is  illustrated  in  the  following : 

"Dietary  studies  were  carried  on  in  the  families  of  a 
teacher  and  of  a  tinner  living  in  Lafayette,  Ind.,  during 
the  spring  of  1895.  An  examination  of  the  details  of  the 
two  studies  shows  that  the  teacher's  family  obtained  per 
man  per  day  75  grams  of  protein  and  1,425  calories  of 
energy  at  a  cost  of  twelve  cents ;  the  tinner,  62  grams  of 
protein  and  1,640  calories  of  energy  at  a  cost  of  thirteen 
cents.  In  other  words,  the  actual  nutritive  value  of  the 
diet  was  not  notably  different  in  the  two  cases.  The  pro- 
portion of  beef,  veal,  eggs,  etc.,  in  the  two  diets,  was, 
however,  quite  different.  The  teacher's  family  used  large 

*Snyder. 


DIETARIES    AND   BILLS    OF  FARE.  391 

amounts  of  beef  round,  shoulder,  and  some  loin  steaks, 
which  were  purchased  at  low  prices.  The  tinner's  family 
used  rather  less  beef,  but  the  cuts  that  were  used  were, 
on  the  whole,  more  expensive.  The  teacher's  family  used 
more  veal,  which  was  relatively  costly,  less  eggs,  more 
than  twice  as  much  milk,  and  less  butter  than  the  tinner's 
family.  On  the  whole,  the  former  got  a  little  more  pro- 
tein and  a  little  less  energy  than  the  latter  in  the  animal 
foods  purchased. 

"However,  the  great  difference  in  the  two  dietaries  lies 
in  the  kind  of  cereal  foods  purchased.  The  teacher's 
family  had  home-made  bread  and  cakes,  while  the  tinner's 
family  bought  bakers'  bread,  and  occasionally  cakes.  The 
former  obtained  his  bread  at  about  one-half  the  cost  to 
the  latter,  even  when  a  reasonable  allowance  is  made  for 
the  cost  of  all  the  ingredients  in  the  bread,  and  the  heat 
required  to  bake  it.  The  teacher's  family  used  more 
•cereals  and  less  vegetables  and  fruits  than  the  tinner's 
family.  In  these  ways,  the  former  family  obtained  in 
their  vegetable  foods  36  grams  of  protein  and  1,485 
calories  of  energy  for  six  cents  per  man  per  day,  while 
the  latter  spent  more  than  twice  the  amount  (thirteen 
cents)  per  man  per  day,  and  obtained  44  grams  of  protein 
.and  2,200  calories  of  energy.  In  other  words,  the  teacher 
obtained  for  eighteen  cents  as  much  protein  and  nearly  as 
much  energy  as  did  the  tinner  for  twenty-six  cents."* 
Waste  of  Food. 

Dietary  studies  have  brought  out  the  fact  that  the  waste 
of  food  material  varies  from  three  per  cent,  to  six  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  furnished.  In  some  families  there  is  prac- 
tically nothing  wasted;  in  others  there  is  much  waste. 
Waste  occurs  in  four  ways, — two  of  them  in  the  kitchen 
.and  two  at  the  table.  The  one  who  prepares  the  meals 
may  waste  by  too  much  or  unwise  trimming  of  meats  and 
vegetables,  and  in  the  manner  of  cooking  them.  She  may 
also  waste  by  cooking  a  larger  amount  than  is  needed,  and 

*  Bryant. 


392  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

by  lack  of  skill  in  so  preparing  left-overs  as  to  have  them 
sufficiently  palatable  to  be  eaten.  Those  at  the  table  waste 
by  eating  more  than  the  system  requires,  and  by  taking 
on  their  plates  more  than  they  can  eat.  The  food  chemists 
have  no  intention  of  ascertaining  what  portion  of  food 
shall  be  weighed  out  to  each  person  daily ;  neither  is  it  in- 
tended that  a  dietary  for  each  day  in  the  week  shall  be 
printed  and  hung  up,  thus  relieving  the  people  of  respon- 
sibility. Their  only  object  is  to  show  the  nutritive  value 
of  different  food  materials,  and  point  out  which  are  the 
most  economical  sources  of  nutrients,  and  what  combina- 
tions, will,  in  general,  best  subserve  the  purpose  intended. 
The  special  applications  must  be  made  by  each  individual 
and  each  family. 

Food  Values. 

Some  people  avoid  white  flour,  in  the  belief  that  it  is- 
composed  largely  of  starch.  A  study  of  the  chemical  an- 
alyses of  wheats  and  flours  will  reveal  the  fact  that  white 
flour  from  hard  northwestern  spring  wheat  is  rich  in  pro- 
tein compounds.  It  contains  twelve  per  cent,  or  more 
of  muscle-forming  material. 

The  idea  is  prevalent  that  yellow  cornmeal  contains 
more  fat  than  white  cornmeal.  Chemical  analyses  show 
no  difference  in  the  composition  of  meal  made  from  corn 
grown  under  the  same  conditions,  whether  yellow  or 
white.  The  color  has  no  practical  bearing  on  the  food 
value.  Yellow  butter  is  more  attractive,  and  more  pleas- 
ing in  appearance,  but  has  no  greater  food  value  than 
white  butter.  The  same  may  be  said  of  eggs  having  a 
dark-yellow  yolk.  The  banana  is  a  valuable  fruit,  but  it 
cannot  take  the  place  of  other  foods.  A  child  would  be 
better  nourished  if  he  breakfasted  on  potatoes  alone,  than 
on  bananas  alone,  but  plain  bread  and  milk  would  be  better 
than  either  of  the  others,  if  a  single  dish  is  taken.  Some 
people  still  cling  to  the  idea  that  mushrooms  contain  much. 


DIETARIES   AND  BILLS   OF  FARE.  393 

nutriment.     Chemical  analyses  show  them  no  better  than 
other  vegetables  in  this  respect,  and  inferior  to  some. 

References:  U.  S.  Office  Exp.  Stations,  Reprint  from  Year 
Book  Dept.  Agr.  1898 — A.  P.  Bryant— pp.  445-450;  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  93,  pp.  13,  14;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Office  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  37,  p.  57;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Office  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  29,  p.  45;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Office  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  21,  pp.  206-214;  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  32,  p.  28;  Feeds  &  Feeding- 
Henry— pp.  616-618,  641;  Minn.  Bulletin  No.  54,  pp.  70-72;  U. 
S.  Dept.  Agr. ,  Office  Exp.  Stations,  Bulletin  No.  98,  p.  31  et  seq. 


CHAPTEE  XXIX. 

MEAT— ITS  USES  AND  ABUSES. 

Those  who  have  studied  the  dietaries  of  different  people 
tell  us  that  well-to-do  professional  men  and  students  in 
America  consume  much  larger  portions  of  muscle-form- 
ing foods  than  are  found  necessary  to  well-nourished  men 
of  the  same  class  in  Europe.  Shall  we  continue  to  feed 
ourselves  unwisely  because  we  live  in  a  land  of  plenty,  or 
shall  we  let  reason  regulate  our  diet  and  be  blessed  with 
sound  bodies  and  unclouded  intellects?  Prof.  Atwater 
says:  "Taking  results  as  they  are,  they  very  decidedly 
confirm  the  general  impression  of  hygienists  that  our  diet 
is  one-sided,  and  that  we  eat  too  much.  This  is  due 
partly  to  our  large  consumption  of  sugar,  and  partly  to 
our  use  of  such  large  quantities  of  meat." 

A  diet  composed  too  largely  of  meat  tends  to  produce 
acid  fluids  in  the  body.  The  gastric  juice,  acid  in  its 
normal  state,  becomes  more  acid.  The  saliva,  normally 
alkaline,  becomes  acid.  The  result  often  is  disease, 
brought  about  by  these  unnatural  conditions.  There  arc 
foods  which  produce  the  opposite  effect. 

Under  the  general  term  "meat"  may  be  included  fish, 
as  well  as  other  animals  the  flesh  of  which  is  used  for 
food. 

In  some  localities,  fish  is  a  cheaper  source  of  protein 
than  meat.  It  always  forms  a  pleasant  variety,  as  well 
as  a  nourishing  food.  The  belief  that  fish  is  a  fine  brain 
food  no  longer  has  credence.  Analyses  have  shown  it  not 
universally  richer  in  phosphorus  than  other  animal  flesh. 
Neither  is  there  any  evidence  that  persons  using  fish  in- 
stead of  meat  have  greater  brain  power.  The  nutritive 
value  of  fish,  like  other  foods,  depends  upon  the  digesti- 


MEAT— ITS    USES   AND  ABUSES.  395 

bility.  Experiments  so  far  have  shown  it  to  be  about  like 
meat  in  this  respect.  The  fatter  fish,  and  especially  where 
the  fat  is  mingled  with  the  lean,  are  more  difficult  of  diges- 
tion than  those  containing  less  oil.  Cod,  haddock,  perch, 
pike,  and  bluefish  are  some  of  the  leaner  fish,  while  salmon, 
shad,  and  mackerel  belong  to  the  other  class. 

Analyses  show  that  lobsters,  crabs,  shrimps,  etc.,  con- 
tain some  nutrients,  but  these  and  oysters  must  always 
be  regarded  as  delicacies,  over  the  greater  portion  of  the 
world,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  them  fresh 
and  at  a  reasonable  price.  According  to  the  data  recently 
collected  by  the  United  States  Fish  Commissioner,  more 
than  a  billion  pounds  of  fish  are  taken  annually  in  the 
United  States  waters,  and  mostly  consumed  at  home,  yet 
people  in  the  inland  towns  and  cities  seldom  have  a  really 
delicious  fish,  except  when  they  visit  the  lakes  in  summer, 
so  quickly  do  fish  lose  their  finest  flavor.  There  is  a 
difference  in  the  flavors  of  fresh  and  salt-water  fish. 
Which  is  better,  depends  entirely  upon  individual  taste. 
The  price  of  fish  in  the  market  depends  on  several  things. 
Fish  from  clear,  deep,  cool  water  are  preferable  to  those 
which  inhabit  water  that  is  shallow  and  warm,  and  they 
consequently  command  a  higher  price.  Water  which 
flows  over  a  rocky  and  sandy  bottom  contains  fish  prefera- 
ble to  those  which  inhabit  a  stream  having  a  muddy  bot- 
tom. Some  fish  are  considered  very  poor  or  unfit  for 
food  during  the  spawning  season,  but  shad  are  at  their 
best  at  this  time.  The  manner  in  which  fish  are  taken 
also  affects  their  food  value  very  materially.  Where 
gill  nets  are  used,  and  the  fish  die  slowly  in  the  wa- 
ter, they  decompose  readily,  and  are  very  inferior. 
When  fish  are  thrown  upon  the  land,  and  allowed  to 
die  slowly,  the  result  is  the  same.  They  should,  in  all 
cases,  be  killed  immediately,  both  because  it  is  more  hu- 
mane, and  on  account  of  the  food  value.  Fish  may  be 
bought  in  the  market  either  whole  or  dressed.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  buy  those  from  which  the  entrails  and  scales  have 


3%  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

been  removed.  There  will  probably  be  less  nutritive  ma- 
terial lost  if  the  remainder  of  the  dressing  is  done  at 
home.  According  to  good  authorities,  fish  lose  from  ten 
to  fifty  per  cent,  of  their  weight  in  their  preparation  for 
cooking,  the  amount  lost  depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
fish.  Fish  preserved  by  salting,  smoking,  and  drying,  or 
by  a  combination  of  these  ways,  can  always  be  obtained 
well  preserved,  but  the  flavor,  of  course,  is  changed.  Salt 
fish  must  be  kept  under  brine.  When  wished  for  use, 
they  should  be  soaked  in  plenty  of  cold  water,  skin  side 
up.  The  water  should  be  changed  several  times.  After 
such  treatment,  they  are  very  palatable  when  cooked. 
Finnan  haddie  (a  dried  fish)  is  best  washed  clean  and 
braised,  or  stewed  in  sweet  milk.  Codfish  requires  a  little 
different  treatment  still.  Dried  fish  weigh  much  less 
than  fresh  fish,  owing  to  the  evaporation  of  water.  The 
loss  ranges  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent.,  or  more,  ac- 
cording to  whether  the  fish  are  boned.  Large  quantities 
of  fish  are  canned  each  year.  Most  fish  are  canned  in 
their  own  juices ;  the  flavor  of  the  fresh  fish  is  thus  largely 
retained,  and  they  will  keep  indefinitely  before  the  can  is 
opened. 

The  clam  juice  and  fish  extracts  offered  for  sale  have 
little  or  no  food  value,  but  are,  no  doubt,  beneficial  in 
some  cases.  Preservatives  are  probably  used  in  some 
cases  in  shipping  fish  and  oysters,  but  their  use  is  not  de- 
sirable because  of  their  harmful  results.  Laws  have  re- 
cently been  passed  in  some  states  preventing  the  use  of 
preservatives  in  various  food  products. 

*"Ptomaines  are  poisonous  bodies  due  to  the  action  of 
micro-organisms.  They  are  chemical  compounds  of 
definite  composition,  and  are  elaborated  by  micro-organ- 
isms breaking  down  the  complex  ingredients  of  animal 
tissue,  just  as  alcohol  is  due  to  the  action  of  yeasts  break- 
ing down  sugar,  or  as  acetic  acid  is  due  to  the  action  of 
mycoderma  acetic  breaking  down  alcohol.  The  formation 

*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bulletin  No.  85. 


MEAT— ITS    USES   AND   ABUSES.  397 

\  of  ptomaines  quite  generally — although  not  always — ac- 
companies putrefaction  (often  in  its  early  stages),  and 
therefore  great  care  should  be  taken  to  eat  fish  only  when 
it  is  in  perfectly  good  condition.  Fish  which  has  been 
frozen,  and  after  thawing  kept  for  a  time  before  it  is 
cooked,  is  especially  likely  to  contain  injurious  ptomaines. 

"Canned  fish  should  never  be  allowed  to  remain  long  in 
the  can  after  opening,  but  should  be  used  at  once.  There 
is  some  possibility  of  danger  from  the  combined  action  of 
the  can  contents,  and  the  action  of  the  air  upon  the  solder 
of  the  can  itself.  Furthermore,  canned  fish  seems  pecu- 
liarly suited  to  the  growth  of  micro-organisms  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air. 

"Finally,  fish  offered  for  sale  should  be  handled  in  a 
cleanly  manner,  and  stored  and  exposed  for  sale  under 
hygienic  conditions. 

"Oysters,  when  'floated'  or  'fattened,'  should  never  be 
placed  in  water  contaminated  with  sewage,  as  such 
contains  typhoid  fever  germs,  or  other  harmful  material. 
It  is  only  just  to  say  that  the  dangers  from  parasites,  mi- 
cro-organisms, ptomaines,  and  uncleanly  surroundings 
are  not  limited  to  fish.  Under  the  conditions  which  favor 
the  growth  of  micro-organisms,  meat  and  other  highly 
nitrogenous  animal  foods  undergo  decomposition  resulting 
in  the  formation  of  ptomaines.  Animal  parasites  may  be 
acquired  from  flesh  of  various  kinds,  if  not  thoroughly 
cooked,  provided,  of  course,  the  flesh  is  infected.  This 
danger  is  reduced  by  proper  inspection.  Vegetable  foods 
may  also  become  contaminated  in  various  ways.  The  im- 
portance of  measures  to  secure  pure  and  wholesome  food 
can  hardly  be  overstated.  The  best  interests  of  the  peo- 
ple undoubtedly  demand  a  strict  and  impartial  supervision 
by  public  officers  of  the  sale  of  food  products." 

"In  view  of  statements  of  a  popular  nature  which  have 
been  made  on  the  dangers  from  eating  poisonous  fish,  or 
from  ptomaines  contained  in  fish,  a  few  words  sum- 
marizing the  actual  knowledge  on  these  topics  seems  de- 


398  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

sirable.  There  are  several  species  of  fish  which  are  ac- 
tually poisonous.  Few  of  them,  however,  are  found  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  chances  of  their  being  offered 
for  sale  are  very  small.  Such  fish  are  mostly  confined  to 
tropical  waters.  Fish  may  contain  parasites,  some  of 
which  are  injurious  to  man.  These  are,  however,  de- 
stroyed bv  the  thorough  cooking  to  which  fish  is  usually 
subjected."* 

Small  fish  are  usually  preserved  in  oil,  and  are  often 
broiled  and  served  on  toast  at  luncheons. 

Herring  are  usually  either  pickled  or  kippered, — that  is, 
salted  and  dried.  Herring,  sprat,  and  Yarmouth  bloat- 
ers— all  small  fish — are  used  for  relishes. 

Anchovies  are  small  fish,  caught  in  great  numbers  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  They  can  be  had  pickled  or  pre- 
served in  oil,  or  in  the  form  known  as  anchovy  paste  or 
butter.  The  whole  fish  are  used  as  relishes,  and  served 
in  a  similar  manner  to  those  spoken  of  before.  The  paste 
is  used  in  making  sandwiches  and  sauces. 

Lobsters  are  usually  found  in  our  markets  boiled.  Like 
the  rest  of  the  fish  family,  they  have  the  best  flavor  when 
killed  soon  after  leaving  the  water.  Professional  lobster 
cookers  boil  them  immediately  after  they  are  taken  from 
the  water.  When  bought  alive,  they  should  be  very 
lively. 

Shrimps  are  usually  found  in  the  northern  markets 
cooked.  They  are  generally  shelled  also ;  lobsters  are  not. 

Prawns  are  much  like  shrimps,  but  larger  and  coarser. 
All  three  are  used  in  soups,  salads,  and  sauces.  Craw- 
fish are  usually  sold  in  the  shell,  and  are  used  for  bisques, 
and  for  garnishing  dishes  of  fish,  when  used  at  all. 

Oysters  can  be  bought  in  the  shell  or  bulk.  Liquid 
oysters  have,  in  addition,  the  liquid  which  comes  from 
the  shell,  diluted  with  more  or  less  water.  Solid  oys- 
ters are  almost  free  from  liquid.  Oysters  are  usually 


MEAT— ITS    USES   AND   ABUSES.  399 

divided  into  three  grades.     The  larger  ones  are  called 

counts/'  and  are  used  for  frying,  broiling  and  panning. 

Selects"  are  next  in  size.     They  are  sometimes  called 

"culls,"  and  are  nice  for  escaloping.     The  smallest  are 

called   "stewing   oysters."     When   oysters   are   taken   as 

they  come  from  the  shell,  large  and  small  together,  they 

are\called  "straights." 

According  to  the  best  authority,  beef  gives  more  muscle- 
forming  food  in  proportion  to  the  fat  than  either  mutton 
or  pork.  In  mutton  and  lamb,  the  proportion  of  protein 
and  fat  is  about  the  same  as  in  the  fatter  cuts  of  beef. 
The  leaner  cuts  of  pork  contain  practically  as  much  fat 
as  the  fatter  cuts  of  other  meats.  Smoked  ham  is  similar 
in  composition  to  the  cuts  just  mentioned.  The  large  pro- 
portion of  fat  is  due  in  part  to  the  loss  of  water.  The 
carbohydrates  of  meat  are  scarcely  worth  mentioning, 
being  only  a  fraction  of  one  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
mineral  matter  varies.  The  most  important  mineral  mat- 
ters are  phosphates  of  potash,  lime,  and  magnesia.  There 
is  a  wide  difference  in  the  food  value  of  meat,  whether 
it  be  cuts  from  different  animals  or  different  cuts  from 
the  same  animal.  The  chuck  rib  contains  about  the  same 
amount  of  nutrients  as  the  loin.  Cuts  from  the  loin  cost 
about  one-third  more.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
loin  can  be  cut  into  steaks,  which  can  in  a  few  minutes 
be  ready  for  the  table,  and  they  have  a  fine  flavor.  The 
cuts  from  the  chuck  rib  require  much  more  time  to  render 
them  equally  palatable,  and  in  many  cases  as  digestible,  as 
the  other.  The  extra  one-third  is  paid  to  gain  flavor  and 
save  time  and  skill.  Here  again  the  farmer  has  the  ad- 
vantage over  his  city  cousin, — he  can  have  the  entire  car- 
cass for  live-weight  cost. 

The  prime  ribs  often  give  less  nutritive  material  than 
the  chuck  ribs,  but  they  sell  for  a  higher  price.  The  cuts 
from  rump  and  round  can  usually  be  bought  for  two- 
thirds  the  price  paid  for  the  choice  cuts,  and  if  one  de- 
sires as  much  food  value  as  possible  for  the  money  ex- 


400  HOUSEHOLD '  SCIENCE. 

pended,  it  is  well  to  buy  these,  and  by  skillful  manipula- 
tion -render  them  palatable  and  digestible.  People  who 
are  acquainted  with  the  manner  in  which  the  poor  of  the 
cities  live  say  that  the  married  women  who  work  for 
wages  could  often  save  more  money  than  they  earn  by 
staying  at  home  and  skillfully  manipulating  their  domestic 
affairs.  It  is  said  that  they  often  buy  the  better  .cuts  of 
meat  because  they  are  so  much  more  readily  prepared. 

Meat  is  a  large  item  of  expense  in  any  family,  but  the 
tougher  cuts  are  usually  the  least  expensive.  Why  are 
some  cuts  of  meat  tougher  than  others?  The  muscles 
which  are  much  used  are  always  tougher  than  those 
which  are  used  little  or  none.  Compare  the  tough,  juicy 
round  with  the  tender,  dry  tenderloin  of  beef.  The  rea- 
son the  same  cuts  from  different  animals  vary  in  this 
respect  is  that  each  little  filament  or  fibrillae  of  which  the 
muscle  is  composed  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane.  If 
the  animal  from  which  the  meat  was  made  was  young 
and  well  nourished,  this  tissue  is  small  in  proportion  to 
the  central  part  of  the  filament.  In  an  old  and  poorly- 
nourished  or  hard-worked  animal,  the  tissue  is  relatively 
much  thicker  and  harder.  The  same  is  true  of  the  fibre 
or  bunches  of  fibrillae  forming  the  muscles  themselves, 
there  being  a  thicker  membrane  covering  the  whole.  To 
soften  the  cell  walls  in  vegetable  foods  and  render  the 
product  palatable  and  digestible,  we  subject  the  food 
to  a  long,  slow  cooking,  as  in  cereals.  In  a  similar  man- 
ner we  render  tough  meats  tender,  palatable,  and  digesti- 
ble. Different  meats  vary  greatly  in  flavor.  This  is 
mainly  due  to  either  the  kind  or  amount  of  extractives 
contained  in  the  flesh.  The  muscular  fibre  of  mutton  and 
pork  seems  to  have  very  little  flavor.  The  characteristic 
taste  is  derived  largely  from  the  fat  in  each  case. 

Any  particular  kind  of  meat  has  its  best  flavor  when 
the  animal  from  which  it  was  made  was  of  the  best  breed, 
at  the  most  suitable  age,  and  had  been  cared  for  and  fed 
in  the  most  perfect  manner.  The  flesh  of  young  animals 


MEAT— ITS    USES   AND  ABUSES.  401 

is  more  tender  but  poorer  in  flavor  than  that  from  animals 
of  mature  age.  In  general,  the  flesh  of  the  female  is  more 
delicate  than  that  of  the  male.  Animals  which  feed  on 
fish  usually  have  a  disagreeable  flavor.  Fish  are  them- 
selves an  exception  to  this  rule.  The  proportion  of  nu- 
trients is  smaller  in  fish  than  in  meats,  ordinarily,  on  ac- 
count of  the  large  proportion  of  water  which  they  contain. 
Chicken  and  turkey  are  rich  in  extractives,  but  poorer  in 
fat  than  the  fatter  meats.  They  have  a  large  amount 
of  refuse,  yet  they  furnish  a  goodly  amount  of 
protein.  Meats  are  a  food  in  which  there  is  excellent 
opportunity  for  wasting.  The  bones  and  trimmings  of 
meat,  which  are  often  thrown  away,  would  aid  in  making 
a  soup  which  would  in  turn  help  to  prevent  that  worst 
of  all  wastefulness,  overeating.  So  far  as  investigation 
*  has  been  made,  meat  seems  to  be  quite  well  digested  by 
most  healthy  persons.  Raw  beef  has  been  found  more 
easily  digested  than  that  which  is  cooked.  Pork  should 
always  be  eaten  well  done,  because  parasites  are  so  often 
present  in  this  meat. 

Roasted  joints  of  all  meats  take  precedence  over  those 
which  are  boiled.  Prof.  Atwater  says :  "If  it  is  desired 
to  kill  any  organism  in  the  inner  portions  of  the  cut  of 
meat,  the  piece  must  be  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  the 
action  of  heat.  Ordinary  methods  of  cooking  are  seldom 
sufficient.  In  a  piece  of  meat  weighing  ten  pounds,  the 
temperature  of  the  interior  after  boiling  four  hours  was 
only  190°  F.  The  inner  temperature  of  meat  when  roast- 
ing has  been  observed  to  vary  from  160°  F.  to  200°  F., 
according  to  the  size  of  the  piece.  In  experiments  on  the 
canning  of  meats,  it  was  found  that  when  large  and  even 
small  cans  were  kept  for  some  time  in  a  hot-water  bath 
at  a  temperature  considerably  above  the  boiling  point  of 
water,  the  interior  temperature  of  the  meat  rose  only  to 
208°  F.  in  some  cases,  and  to  165°  F.  in  others.  The 
larger  cans  are,  of  course,  more  likely  to  be  imperfectly 
heated  through  to  the  center. 


402  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

The  digestibility  of  meat  is  greatly  influenced  by  the 
presence  or  absence  of  fat.  Lean  meat  is,  in  general,  more 
digestible  than  fat  meat,  but  much  depends  upon  the 
kind  of  fat,  and  the  manner  of  its  distribution.  Mutton 
fat  is  more  difficult  of  digestion  than  that  found  in  beef. 
If  the  fat  is  mingled  with  the  fibre  of  the  meat,  as  in  eel 
and  lobster,  the  rate  of  digestibility  is  less  rapid.  One 
authority  says  that  the  white  meat  of  the  shad,  with  its 
greater  freedom  from  incorporated  fat,  is  nearly  ten  per 
cent,  more  digestible  than  the  dark  and  fatter  meat  of  the 
same  fish. 

From  time  immemorial,  man  has  desired  meat  as 
a  part,  at  least,  of  his  diet,  unless  debarred  by  a  moral 
or  religious  belief.  Drying  was  probably  the  method  first 
used  for  preserving  meats.  This  means  of  preservation 
is  still  used  in  the  preparation  of  dried  beef  and  summer 
sausages.  Nutritive  value  is  here  sacrificed,  to  some  ex- 
tent, for  the  sake  of  appearance.  American  meat  is  said 
to  be  salted  before  drying,  which,  of  course,  draws  out 
some  of  the  juices.  It  owes  its  red  color  partly  to  the 
action  of  the  saltpeter,  and  in  part  to  drying  in  the  shade. 

A  method  of  canning  similar  to  that  now  in  use  was 
patented  by  Wertheimer  in  1839.  There  is  evidence  that 
the  art  of  preserving  food  by  means  of  heat  was  known 
to  the  ancient  Pompeiians,  as  sealed  jars  of  perfectly  pre- 
served figs  have  been  found  in  the  ruins. 

When  put  up  in  cans,  meat  retains  both  color  and  qual- 
ity. 

According  to  Prof.  Atwater,  "canned  corned  beef  con- 
tains more  protein  pound  for  pound  than  fresh  beef,  and 
stands  very  high  in  fuel  value." 

It  is  claimed  that  dried  meat  prepared  in  the  best 
manner  has  lost  none  of  its  nutriment,  but  contains  only 
about  one-fourth  of  its  original  amount  of  water.  Here 
as  elsewhere  in  comparing  its  nutritive  value  with  that  of 
fresh  meat,  its  digestibility  would  necessarily  be  consid- 
ered. The  Mexicans  still  use  a  primitive  method  of  dry- 


MEAT— ITS    USES   AND   ABUSES.  403 

ing  meat.  The  meat  is  hung  over  a  slow  fire  and  allowed 
to  smoke  and  dry  at  the  same  time.  Hunters  and  travel- 
ers in  wild  countries  often  "jerk"  the  meat  they  kill,  us- 
ing green  sticks  which  will  not  readily  burn  to  hold  it 
over  the  open  camp  fire.  To  so  preserve  it  that  it  will 
keep  long  in  hot  weather,  the  meat  must  be  cut  thin  and 
broiled  until  quite  dry,  and  if  thoroughly  smoked,  all  the 
better. 

Farmers  often  preserve  meat  fresh  for  use  during  the 
winter  months  by  freezing  it.  To  preserve  meat  in  this 
way,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  meat  at  once  into  the  cuts  in 
which  it  is  to  be  used.  Pack  these  in  snow,  and  set  the 
vessel  containing  them  in  a  room  without  fire.  The  meat 
is  thus  more  readily  handled  when  wanted  for  use,  and 
loses  less  of  its  juice,  as  it  is  necessary  to  thaw  only  the 
amount  needed  for  immediate  use.  So  long  as  meat  is 
kept  frozen,  it  will  remain  fresh,  but  it  must  not  be  allow- 
ed to  freeze  and  thaw.  Greater  skill  is  required  to  cook 
frozen  meats  properly  than  those  which  have  not  been 
frozen,  as  the  juices  exude  very  readily  when  a  piece  of 
frozen  meat  thaws.  All  frozen  meat  should  be  thawed 
before  cooking.  It  is  best  to  set  it  in  a  covered  vessel,  and 
allow  it  to  thaw  slowly  in  a  room  where  there  is  fire. 

Salt  as  a  preserver  of  meats  has  long  been  in  use.  Its 
action  on  fresh  raw  meat  is  to  draw  out  some  of  the 
juices,  thus  robbing  the  meat,  not  only  of  a  part  of  the 
water,  but  taking  out  such  other  elements  as  the  water 
with  the  salt  is  capable  of  dissolving.  The  tissues  are 
on  this  account  somewhat  hardened. 

There  are  in  common  use  several  methods  of  preserving 
by  means  of  salt.  By  one  method,  the  meat  is  immersed 
in  a  strong  salt  solution  called  brine.  Pork  is  the  most 
readily  preserved  by  the  use  of  salt  of  any  of  the  meats. 
A  second  method  of  using  salt  as  a  preservative  is  by 
packing  the  meat  in  dry  salt,  using  only  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  salt  to  act  as  a  preservative  for  a  time,  then  com- 
pleting "the  operation  by  smoking.  This  gives  a  fine 


404  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

quality  of  meat,  known  as  "country  cured  ham"  and  bac6n, 
though  the  work  is  very  perfectly  done  by  meat-packing 
firms  and  by  some  local  butchers.  Saltpetre  is  sometimes 
used  in  small  quantities  with  the  salt  to  give  the  meat  a 
finer  color.  The  quality  is  now  considered  improved  by 
this  treatment,  as  it  hardens  the  tissues.  Soda  is  some- 
times used  to  overcome  the  hardening  process.  Borax  is 
sometimes  used  also,  as  both  it  and  saltpetre  are  believed 
to  aid  in  preserving  the  meat.  Borax  and  soda  used  in 
this  way,  even  in  small  quantities,  are  considered  detri- 
mental to  health.  Brine  which  has  been  once  used  is  be- 
lieved to  dissolve  out  a  less  amount  of  the  juices  of  the 
meat  than  a  fresh  solution  does.  For  this  reason,  farmers 
sometimes  boil  the  brine  used  the  previous  year,  cool,  and 
use  it  again,  but  this  process  is  hardly  to  be  recommended, 
as  a  fresh  brine  seems  to  be  more  desirable  on  account 
of  greater  cleanliness. 

Under  the  name  "meat  extracts"  we  find  a  large  num- 
ber of  preparations.  These  might  be  roughly  divided  into 
four  classes :  ( I )  The  true  meat  extracts,  which  con- 
tain little  else  than  the  flavoring  matters  of  the  meat  from 
which  they  are  made,  in  addition  to  such  mineral  salts  as 
may  be  dissolved  out.  Such  should  contain  no  gelatine 
and  no  fat.  They  cannot,  from  their  mode  of  making, 
contain  any  albumen.  They  are,  consequently,  merely 
stimulants,  like  tea,  coffee,  and  other  allied  substances. 
(2)  Beef  broth  and  beef  tea.  These,  as  commonly  pre- 
pared in  the  household,  contain  some  fat,  some  protein, 
and  have  some  food  value,  though  the  amount  may  be  eas- 
ily overestimated.  (3)  Meat  juices.  These  contain  the  juice 
extracted  from  meat  by  pressure.  They  usually  contain 
some  albumen.  Preparations  containing  dried  pulverized 
meat  are  called  by  the  same  name.  These  each  have  some 
food  value.  Preparations  known  as  predigested  food 
contain  the  soluble  albuminoids,  etc.,  which  are  obtained 
from  the  meat  by  artificial  digestion.  These  are  in  some 


MEAT— ITS    USES   AND  ABUSES.  405 

cases  really  what  they  claim  to  be.  The  uses  of  any  of 
these  should  be  by  competent  medical  advice. 

In  addition  to  the  meat  proper,  there  are  other  por- 
tions of  the  animal  which  are  known  as  "offal."  In  large 
packing  houses,  these  parts  are  preserved  and  utilized. 
Hearts,  livers,  oxtails,  and  kidneys  are  used  for  food. 
Also  the  tongues  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs,  as  well  as  ox- 
lips,  ox-palates,  and  sweetbreads.  Also  pigs'  noses  and 
pigs'  feet.  The  lungs  are  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter,  and 
are  used  in  some  countries  for  food  by  mincing  and  com- 
bining with  other  meats.  The  blood  is  used  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  Germans  in  blood  puddings  and  sausages. 
Caen,  France,  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  tripe.  The 
offal  generally  contains  less  fat  and  about  the  same 
amount  of  mineral  matter  as  the  portions  called  "meat." 
Much  of  the  remainder  of  the  offal  is  used  for  some  pur- 
pose. The  skin  is  made  into  leather.  Parts  of  the  hoofs, 
bones,  and  horns  are  made  into  glue.  The  hoofs  and 
horns  proper  are  made  into  buttons,  spoons,  and  other 
articles.  Some  of  the  intestines  are  cleansed  and  pre- 
served for  sausage  casings.  The  bladders  are  useful  for 
packing  putty.  The  bones  make  good  fertilizers  for  the 
land,  and  are  also  useful  in  sugar  refineries.  The  blood 
may  be  used  in  the  refining  of  sugar  or  as  a  fertilizer. 
Pepsin  is  made  from  certain  parts  of  the  animal,  as  the 
stomach  of  the  pig  and  the  thyroid  gland  of  the  sheep.  In 
small  places,  many  of  these  materials  are  mostly  waste, 
as  there  is  not  the  means  of  at  once  making  them  into 
these  final  products. 

The  American  industry  in  salted  and  cured  meats  is 
very  great.  According  to  the  official  report  for  the  fiscal 
year  of  1892  to  1893,  the  American  exports  of  bacon 
amounted  to  397,000,000  pounds.  Eighty-two  million 
pounds  of  ham  were  exported,  53,000,000  pounds  of  salt 
pork,  and  58,000,000  pounds  of  salted  beef.  The  canning 
of  meats  is  also  extensively  carried  on. 

Our  critics  tell  us  that  we  eat  as  .we  live, — very  rap- 


406  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

idly.  Figures,  which  never  lie,  tell  us  that  we  con- 
sume meat  and  sugar  in  excessive  quantities.  In  some  lo- 
calities, at  least,  this  is  true.  A  one-sided  diet  never  fails 
to  bring  evil  results. 

We,  as  a  nation,  boast  that  we  can  make  an  American 
of  any  foreigner  who  chooses  to  make  his  home  among 
us.  Let  us  then  pay  more  heed  to  our  manner  of  living, 
and  hasten  the  time  when  we  can  say  that  the  native 
American  is  a  model  man,  physically,  mentally,  and  mor- 
ally. We  study  wise  feeding  in  the  care  of  stock,  but 
hear  what  one  writer  says  of  us :  "It  is  not  surprising 
that  the  Americans  are  coming  to  be  known  as  a  race 
of  dyspeptics  when  we  consider  their  universal  ignorance 
of  the  uses  of  foods  and  the  needs  of  the  human  body." 

References:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations, 
Bulletin  No.  102;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Exp.  Stations, 
Bulletin  No.  34. 


CHAPTER  XXX, 

FOODS  AND  DIET. 

Food  is  that  which,  when  taken  into  the  body,  repairs 
waste,  forms  tissue,  or  yields  energy  in  the  form  of  heat 
and  muscular  power.  Most  food  material  contains  a 
portion  which  is  non-edible  in  addition  to  the  nutrients. 
In  fish,  the  bone  and  skin  form  the  non-edible  portion ; 
in  eggs,  the  shell ;  in  meat,  the  bone, — and  so  on.  Foods 
present  a  great  variety  of  appearances  and  flavors,  but 
chemical  analyses  show  that  each  one  is  composed  of  a 
portion  'or  all  of  the  following  compounds :  Protein,  fats, 
carbohydrates,  and  mineral  matter.  Water  is  usually 
present  in  food,  and  while  not  classed  among  nutrients, 
is  absolutely  necessary  in  the  body,  because  it  carries  the 
nutrients,  and,  as  it  bathes  the  different  tissues,  each  ap- 
propriates to  itself  such  nutrients  as  are  needed  for  re- 
pairs or  growth. 

The  nutrients  are  made  up  of  the  following  elements : 
Nitrogen,  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  phosphorus,  sul- 
phur, calcium,  magnesium,  sodium,  potassium,  silicon, 
chlorin,  fluorine,  and  iron. 

Probably  no  single  nutrient  contains  all  of  these.  Of  the 
nutrients  named  above,  protein  alone  supplies  nitrogen  to 
the  body,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  we  take  food 
containing  some  protein,  as  the  muscular  tissues  and  the 
fluids  of  the  body  need  it  for  repairs  and  growth.  Protein 
is  capable  of  forming  fatty  tissues,  and  can  be  used  to  pro- 
duce heat  and  energy,  but  it  is  not  wise  to  use  it  so,  because 
this  entails  unnecessary  work  on  the  organs,  thus,  in  time, 
often  causing  disease.  Protein  is  also  more  expensive 
than  fats  and  carbohydrates,  which  should  be  used  for  pro- 
producing  heat  and  energy.  Mineral  matter  is  the  only 


408  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

nutrient  which  cannot  supply  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen to  the  body. 

Classification  of  Foods. 

Foods  may  be  classed,  with  reference  to  their  origin, 
as  animal  foods  and  vegetable  foods.  The  principal  ani- 
mal foods  are  eggs,  meats  (including  fish  of  all  kinds, 
poultry,  and  game),  milk,  and  cheese.  Vegetable  foods 
include  all  edibles  commonly  called  "vegetables,"  as  well 
as  nuts  and  fruits.  Animal  foods  are  in  general  richer  in 
protein,  easier  of  digestion,  and  higher  in  price  than  veg- 
etable foods,  though  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
Milk,  cheese,  and  the  cheaper  cuts  of  meat  are  inexpensive 
sources  of  protein  food,  and  when  properly  prepared  are 
well  assimilated,  though  tough  meats  and  all  kinds  of 
cheese  require  careful  preparation. 

Vegetable  foods  in  general  contain  a  small  amount  of 
nutritive  material  in  proportion  to  their  bulk.  Legumes, 
such  ^s  peas,  beans,  and  lentils,  are  an  exception  to  this 
rule.  Cereals  are  also  rich  in  protein,  starch  and  fat.  Veg- 
etables and  milk  are  especially  valuable  in  giving  needed 
bulk  to  the  food,  and  many  fruits  and  young  vegetables  aid 
digestion  much  by  furnishing  needed  acids  and  mineral 
matters.  Almost  all  animal  and  vegetable  foods  furnish 
some  mineral  matter,  but  milk  and  cereals  are  especially 
valuable  in  this  way.  Water  is  also  a  source  of  mineral 
matter. 

Fat  is  derived  from  both  the  animal  and  the  vegetable 
kingdoms, — as  the  fat  of  meat,  milk,  etc.  Its  chief  source 
among  vegetables  is  nuts,  as  the  peanut,  walnut,  etc. ; 
fruits,  as  the  olive ;  and  grains,  as  corn  and  wheat. 

With  reference  to  their  use  in  the  body,  foods  may  be 
classed  as  protein  foods, — as  eggs,  meat,  milk,  etc. ;  carbo- 
hydrate foods, — as  rice,  potatoes,  etc. ;  and  fatty  foods, — 
as  pork,  butter,  etc. 


FOODS   AND   DIET. 


409 


Classification  of  Nutrients. 

The  following  is  from  Bulletin  No.  21,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
"Chemistry  and  Economy  of  Foods." 

"The  following  familiar  examples  of  compounds,  com- 
monly grouped  with  each  of  the  four  principal  classes  of 
nutrients,  will  serve  to  define  the  terms  as  here  used,  and 
may  perhaps  help  to  avoid  the  confusion  which  unfortun- 
ately results  from  the  variations  in  usage  by  different  wri- 
ters. 

"Proteids :  Albuminoids,  e.  g.,  albumen  of  eggs ; 
myosin,  the  basis  of  muscle  (lean  meat)  ;  the  albumin- 
oids which  make  up  the  gluten  of  wheat.  Gelantin- 
oids,  e.  g.,  constituents  of  connective  tissue  which  yield 
gelatine  and  allied  substances,  e.  g.,  collagen  of  tendon, 
ossein  of  bone. 

"Nitrogenous  extractives  of  flesh,  i.  e.,  of  meats  and 
fish.  These  include  kreatin  and  allied  compounds,  and 
are  the  chief  ingredients  of  beef  tea  and  most  meat  ex- 
tracts. 

"Amids :  This  term  is  frequently  applied  to  the  ni- 
trogenous non-albuminoid  compounds  of  vegetable 
foods  and  feeding  stuffs,  among  which  are  amido  acids, 
such  as  aspartic  acid  and  asparagin.  Some  of  them  are 
more  or  less  allied  in  chemical  constitution  to  the  nitro- 
genous extractives  of  flesh. 

"Fats:  Fat  of  meat,  fat  of  milk,  oil  of  corn,  wheat, 
etc.,  the  ingredients  of  the  "ether  extract"  of  animal  or 
vegetable  foods  and  feeding  stuffs,  which  it  is  customary 
to  group  together  roughly  as  'fats/  include,  with  the  true 
fats,  various  other  substances,  lecithens  and  chlorophylls. 
"Carbohydrates :  Sugar,  starch,  celluloses,  gums, 
woody  fiber,  etc. 

"Mineral  matters :  Potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  and 
magnesium  chlorides,  sulphates,  and  phosphates. 

Uses  of  Food— Functions  of  Nutrients. 

'The  two  chief  uses  of  the  food  of  animals  are,  first, 
to  form  the  material  of  the  body,  and  to  repair  its  waste ; 


410  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and,  second,  to  yield  energy  in  the  form  of  (i)  heat  to 
keep  the  body  warm,  and  (2)  muscular  and  other  power 
for  the  work  it  has  to  do. 

"In  forming  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body,  the  food 
serves  for  building  and  repairing.  In  yielding  energy,  it 
serves  as  fuel  for  yielding  heat  and  power. 

"The  different  nutrients  of  food  act  in  different  ways  in 
fulfilling  these  purposes.  The  principal  tissue  formers 
are  the  albuminoids.  These  form  the  frame  work  of  the 
body.  They  build  and  repair  the  nitrogenous  materials, 
as  those  of  muscle,  tendon,  and  bone,  and  supply  the  al- 
buminoids of  blood,  milk,  and  other  fluids. 

"The  chief  fuel  ingredients  of  the  food  are  the  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats.  These  are  either  consumed  in  the  body, 
or  are  stored  as  fat,  to  be  used  as  occasion  demands. 

Building  and  Repair— Functions  of  the  Protein  Compounds. 

"The  albuminoids  are  the  building  material  for  the  body. 
The  bodily  machine  is  made  from  them,  but  in  the  making 
of  the  machine  the  albuminoids  remain  partly  albuminoids, 
and  are  partly  changed  to  gelatinoids,  so  that  the  ma- 
chine, as  built,  consists  of  both  albuminoids  and  gela- 
tinoids. The  gelatinoids  cannot,  according  to  the  best  evi- 
dence now  at  hand,  be  transformed  into  albuminoids,  but 
they  do  serve  to  protect  the  albuminoids  from  being  con- 
sumed. Both  albuminoids  and  gelatinoids,  after  they  have 
served  as  building  material,  can  be  broken  up  and  oxidized 
within  the  body.  In  this  cleavage  and  oxidation,  they 
serve  as  fuel. 

"The  nitrogenous  extractives  can  neither  build  tissue 
nor  serve  as  fuel,  but  they  are  useful  otherwise.  Just  how 
they  are  useful  is  not  yet  fully  explained,  but  they  appear 
to  exert  some  influence  upon  the  nervous  system  to  act  as 
stimulants,  and  thus  to  help  the  body  to  make  use  of  other 
materials  in  its  nourishment." 


FOODS   AND   DIET. 


411 


Carbohydrates. 

Chief  among  carbohydrates  are  the  sugars  and  starches. 
These  contain  the  three  elements,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  and,  in  common  with  other  carbohydrates,  fur- 
nish heat  and  energy  to  the  body.  Their  chemical  formu- 
lae are  somewhat  different.  Glucose,  grape  sugar,  and 
levulose,  or  fruit  sugar,  have  six  atoms  of  carbon,  twelve 
atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  six  atoms  of  oxygen.  Cane 
sugar  and  milk  sugar  have  each  twelve  atoms  of  carbon, 
twenty-two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  eleven  atoms  of 


Sugur  Cane  and  Sugar  Beets. 

oxygen.  The  starches  have  six  atoms  of  carbon,  ten 
atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  six  atoms  of  oxygen.  Cane  sugar 
is  that  derived  from  juices  of  plants ;  the  sugar  cane  and 
sugar  beet  being  the  principal  sources  of  this  variety.  The 
sugar  beet  furnishes  about  two-thirds  of  the  sugar  of 
commerce,  and  the  sugar  cane  a  little  more  than  one- 
third.  The  sugar  from  either  one  of  these  two  sources  is 
called  "cane  sugar,"  or,  more  properly,  "sucrose." 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  93,  makes  the 
following  statement :  "By  no  chemical  test  can  pure 
crystallized  saccharose  or  cane  sugar  from  the  different 


412  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

sources  be  distinguished.  It  is  often  asserted  that  beet 
sugar  has  less  sweetening  power,  or  that  fruits  preserved 
with  it  do  not  keep  so  well,  but  this  can  only  be  true  of 
specimens  that  have  been  imperfectly  purified.  Methods 
of  refining  raw  sugar  have  been  so  improved  in  the  last 
few  years  that  it  may  be  truly  said  that  few  food  sub- 
stances are  so  nearly  pure  chemically  as  the  best  granu- 
lated or  lump  sugar. 

''  'Loaf  sugar  is/  Blythe  says,  'as  a  rule,  chemically 
pure.  It  is  probably,  indeed,  the  purest  of  all  substances 
in  commerce.  The  only  sugars  that  may  be  impure  are  the 
raw  sugars.' ' 

Cane  sugar  is  so  cheap  at  present  that  it  is  seldom  adul- 
terated. Low-priced  sugars  showing  an  almost  white 
color  often  contain  a  very  large  per  cent,  of  water,  owing 
to  the  way  they  are  treated  in  the  vacuum  pan.  More 
sweetening  can  usually  be  bought  for  a  given  sum  in  the 
higher-priced,  pure-white  sugars,  because  they  are  drier. 

Maple  sugar,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  and  pleasant 
flavor,  is  very  much  higher  in  price  than  the  same  amount 
of  saccharine  matter  in  common  sugar.  This  leads  to  the 
belief  that  it  is  adulterated,  but  since  it  is  one  of  the  group 
of  cane  sugars,  it  is  difficult  to  detect  adulteration.  It  is 
generally  believed,  however,  that  a  large  part  of  the  maple 
sugar  of  commerce  is  made  from  glucose,  with  enough 
maple  sugar  added  to  give  to  it  the  maple  flavor.  This 
flavor  is  also  imparted  to  syrups  by  the  use  of  an  extract 
of  hickory  bark. 

The  use  of  glucose  as  an  adulteration  has  several  advan- 
tages over  preparations  of  bark  mixtures.  It  is  cheap, 
wholesome,  and  gives  syrup  a  good  body  and  a  light  color. 
No  syrup  should  contain  glucose  unless  distinctly  so  mark- 
ed. Glucose  has  a  much  lower  sweetening  power  than 
cane  sugar.  The  glucose  of  commerce  is  largely  a  by- 
product from  the  starch  manufactories.  A  glucose  food 
is  very  similar  to  a  starch  food  partially  digested.  Glu- 
cose is  very  largely  used  in  the  adulteration  of  honey.  Ex- 


FOODS   AND   DIET. 


413 


tracted  honey  may  be  pure,  or  it  may  be  glucose  with  just 
enough  of  the  genuine  article  to  disguise  it,  so  far  as  sight 
and  taste  can  discover,  but  by  chemical  means  any  adulter- 
ation can  easily  be  detected.  Cane  sugar  is  not  extensive- 


Sorghum  Plant. 

ly  employed  to  adulterate  honey,  because  it  tends  to  crys- 
tallize readily. 

The  Coloring  of  Sugar. 

*"White  and  yellow   sugar  usually  receives  a  special 
treatment,  either  in  the  vacuum  pan  or  the  centrifugal,  in 
*U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Division  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin  No.  13. 


414  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

order  to  prevent  a  gray  or  dead  appearance.  In  the  case  of 
white  sugar,  blue  ultramarine  is  the  substance  usually  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose.  The  coloring  matter  is  suspended 
in  water,  and  is  applied  as  a  final  wash  in  the  centrifugal 
immediately  before  stopping  the  machine.  This  process 
is  termed  'bluing.'  A  very  small  amount  of  the  color  ad- 
heres to  the  crystals,  giving  the  sugar  a  whiter  and  bright- 
er appearance.  Some  sugar  makers  suspend  a  small 
amount  of  ultramarine  in  the  water,  and  drain  it  into  the 
vacuum  pan  a  few  minutes  before  the  strike  is  finished. 
In  addition  to  this  treatment  in  the  pan,  the  sugar  is  also 
blued  in  the  centrifugal.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  sugars 
which  have  been  excessively  blued,  and  which,  on  solu- 
tion, yield  a  blue  syrup.  Fortunately  ultramarine  is  not 
poisonous,  and  no  injury  to  health  can  result  from  its 


Digestibility  of  Foods. 

The  value  of  a  food  depends  partly  on  the  amount  of 
nutritive  material  it  contains,  and  partly  on  whether  the 
nutrients  are  in  such  form  that  they  can  be  made  use  of  by 
the  body.  Some  foods  are  more  easily  digested  and  as- 
similated when  raw  than  when  cooked,  as  ripe  fruits, 
melons,  lettuce,  cabbage,  etc.  Meat  and  white  of  egg  are 
in  many  cases  more  easily  used  by  the  body  when  taken 
raw,  but  they  have  a  better  flavor  when  cooked.  Most 
foods  lose  something  both  in  flavor  and  food  value  by 
cooking,  if  they  are  perfectly  palatable  and  wholesome 
raw. 

Some  protein  foods  are  digested  largely  in  the  stomach, 
where  the  gastric  juice  dissolves  the  insoluble  materials, 
and  renders  them  capable  of  entering  the  circulation,  to 
be  carried  to  such  parts  of  the  body  as  need  them.  Others 
are  digested  largely  in  the  lower  part  of  the  digestive  tract, 
where  the  pancreatic  juice  performs  a  work  similar  to  that 
done  by  the  gastric  juice  in  the  stomach.  Protein  foods  of 
vegetable  origin  are  usually  more  difficult  of  digestion 


FOODS   AND   DIET.  415 

than  those  of  animal  origin,  and  many  require  cooking  to 
render  them  fit  for  human  food  at  all.  Vegetable  protein, 
as  found  in  beans,  peas,  cereals,  etc.,  is  mixed  with  starch 
and  cellulose,  so  that  neither  the  flavor  nor  the  food  value 
is  perfect  unless  thoroughly  cooked. 

Both  sugars  and  starches,  when  taken  in  excess  of  what 
is  needed  to  furnish  the  heat  and  energy  required  by  the 
body,  tend  to  lay  on  fat.  A  man  doing  hard  work  in  the 
open  air  can  assimilate  much  larger  quantities  of  sugar 
than  one  of  indoor  life  and  sedentary  habits.  Sugar  is 
generally  regarded  as  adapted  to  the  sick  only  in  small 
quantities. 

It  is  believed  that  sugar  is  more  easily  digestible  when 
taken  in  liquids,  as  tea,  coffee,  and  water,  than  in  cake  or 
other  such  food.  A  sufficient  number  of  analyses  have  not 
been  made,  however,  to  prove  this  conclusively.  Sugar, 
like  butter,  is  highly  prized  for  its  agreeable  flavor,  and 
while  starchy  foods  alone  might  furnish  sufficient  carbo- 
hydrates, the  use  of  sugar  in  many  cooked  dishes  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  their  palatability.  There  is,  however, 
no  excuse  for  eating  sugar  in  sufficient  quantities  to  injure 
the  health. 

ABUSE  OF  FOODS. 

The  oft-repeated  words  of  Sir  Henry  Thompson  must 
be  heard  many  times  more  before  we  are  all  free  from  the 
evils  here  spoken  of :  "I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
more  than  half  of  the  disease  that  embitters  the  middle 
and  latter  part  of  life  is  due  to  avoidable  errors  in  diet  and 
that  more  mischief  in  the  form  of  actual  disease,  of  im- 
paired vigor,  and  of  shortened  life  accrues  to  civilized 
man  in  England  and  throughout  central  Europe  from  er- 
ronous  habits  of  eating  than  from  the  habitual  use  of  al- 
coholic drink,  considerable  as  I  know  that  habit  to  be. 
Speaking  in  general  terms,  man  seems  at  the  present  time 
prone  to  choose  foods  which  are  unnecessarily  concen- 


416  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

trated,  and  too  rich  in  nitrogenous  or  flesh-forming  ma- 
terials, and  to  consume  more  in  quantity  than  is  necessary 
for  the  healthy  performance  of  the  animal  functions.  Sick 
headaches  and  bilious  attacks  pursue  their  victims  through 
half  a  lifetime,  to  be  exchanged  for  gout,  or  worse,  at  or 
before  climacteric,  and  so  common  are  these  evils  that  they 
are  regarded  by  people  in  general  as  a  necessary  append- 
age of  poor  humanity.  No  notion  can  be  more  erroneous, 
since  it  is  absolutely  true  that  the  complaints  referred  to 
are  self-engendered,  form  no  part  of  our  physical  nature, 
and  for  their  existence  are  dependent  almost  entirely  on 
our  habits  in  relation  to  food  and  drink.  As  a  rule,  man 
has 'little  knowledge  of,  or  interest  in,  the  processes  by 
which  food  is  prepared  for  the  table.  Until  a  tolerably 
high  standard  of  civilization  is  reached,  he  cares  more  for 
quantity  than  quality,  desires  little  variety,  and  regards 
as  impertinent  an  innovation  in  the  shape  of  a  new  aliment, 
expecting  the  same  food  at  the  same  hour  daily." 

This  celebrated  English  physician  intimates  that  after 
a  high  degree  of  civilization  has  been  reached  human  be- 
ings prefer  quality  to  quantity,  and  enjoy  variety  at  dif- 
ferent meals.  According  to  the  above  statements, — and 
who  can  gainsay  them? — the  health  and  happiness  of  the 
people  of  America  depend  largely  upon  the  wives  and 
daughters  in  the  different  families.  If,  as  we  attend  to 
selecting  and  preparing  the  food  for  daily  meals,  we  can 
feel  that  we  are  accomplishing  as  much  as  can  be  done  in 
any  other  way  to  insure  health  and  happiness,  we  will  cer- 
tainly consider  housekeeping  a  very  exalted  occupation. 

Every  one  knows  that  the  unused  muscles  of  the  body 
become  weak  and  flabby,  and  that  exercise  which  is  too 
severe,  if  long  continued,  shows  deleterious  results.  A 
person  may  be  scrupulously  neat  and  clean,  and  take  just 
the  proper  amount  of  exercise  in  the  open  air,  but  he  will 
not  have  well-developed  muscles,  and  there  will  not  be  the 
glow  of  health  on  his  face.  He  will  not.  have  the  power- 
ful mind  nature  gave  him  the  material  for  forming  unless 


FOODS   AND   DIET.  417 

he  so  regulates  his  food  and  drink  as  to  give  all  the  in- 
ternal organs  regular  exercise  in  proper  amount.  The  di- 
gestive organs  are  just  as  certainly  dwarfed  by  lack  of  ex- 
ercise, and  weakened  by  undue  exercise,  as  the  muscles 
on  the  outside  of  the  body  are. 

It  is  not  best  that  all  foods  be  made  just  as  easily  digest- 
ible as  possible.  Such  a  course  would  impair  the  digestive 
organs  by  giving  them  too  little  work.  On  the  other  hand, 
no  one  would  think  of  giving  the  family  raw  potatoes. 
This  would  be  the  other  extreme.  If  there  is  an  invalid 
in  the  family  who  needs  predigested  food,  prepare  special 
dishes  for  him  for  a  time.  Let  him  take  a  little  of  the 
normal  food  at  each  meal,  if  possible,  and  thereby  grad- 
ually strengthen  his  weakened  powers. 

Every  women  who  has  catered  to  a  large  family  knows 
how  hard  it  is  to  prepare  at  each  meal  extra  dishes,  month 
after  month,  and  year  after  year;  but  there  is  no  better 
way.  If  the  diet  for  the  family  is  made  to  coincide  with 
the  requirements  of  the  invalid,  there  will  sooner  or  later 
be  a  family  of  invalids. 

There  is  no  better  way  of  avoiding  the  excessive  use  of 
one  sort  of  food  than  by  varying  the  kinds  served  at  dif- 
ferent meals.  Take,  for  example,  meat  which,  when  eaten 
in  excess,  produces  very  deleterious  results.  Instead  of 
preparing  meat  for  every  meal,  let  eggs  in  some  of  the 
many  ways  in  which  they  may  be  cooked,  or  eggs  and 
cheese,  which  are  so  delicious,  take  their  place.  Use  cod- 
fish or  some  other  fish  and  there  will  probably  not  be  a 
greater  quantity  consumed  than  the  organs  can  care  for. 
Children  can  often  be  kept  from  consuming  one  food 
in  excess  by  serving  a  moderate  quantity,  and  then  giving 
them  something  else,  and  serving  the  first  again  after  they 
have  almost  satisfied  the  appetite. 

"As  Heaven  is  not  reached  in  a  single  bound,  but  we 
build  the  ladder  by  which  we  rise,"  so  each  housewife,  in- 
stead of  being  discouraged  by  the  many  uncontrollable  cir- 

14 


418  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cumstances,  should  study  the  needs  and  idiosyncrasies 
of  the  different  members  of  her  family,  and  little  by  little 
help  to  make  it  impossible  to  call  the  American  people  a 
race  of  dyspeptics. 

For  a  picked-up  dinner,  a  soup  containing  considerable 
nutrition  would  be  appropriate,  as  a  puree  of  peas,  or 
lentils,  or  a  milk  soup  of  some  kind.  A  meat  soup  contains 
some  little  nutrition,  but  very  little  even  when  not  accom- 
panied by  any  cereal,  as  it  has  in  it  more  or  less  protein, 
some  gelatine,  and  some  fat.  Of  course  the  use  of  a  well- 
cooked  cereal  or  nice  soup  sticks  give  an  additional  amount 
of  nutriment. 

Soup  at  the  beginning  of  the  meal  serves  two  purposes : 
It  is  capable  of  furnishing  more  or  less  nutrition  in  an 
easily  assimilated  form.  It  in  a  measure  quiets  the  nerves, 
allays  the  feeling  of  extreme  hunger,  and  places  one  in  a 
pleasant  state  of  mind  for  enjoying  his  meal.  With  a 
simple  broth  nothing  is  needed,  and  it  is  better  served 
without  any  addition  when  there  is  sufficient  nutriment 
without  this,  as  it  gives  opportunity  for  greater  variety 
when  it  is  needed.  Soup  sticks  or  a  cereal,  as  rice,  barley, 
or  a  paste  of  some  kind,  are  nice  with  broth.  For  a  dinner, 
the  roast  is  supposed  to  give  a  sufficient  amount  of  pro- 
tein, and  a  light  soup  is  best.  When  fish  is  used  in  a  sim- 
ple family  dinner,  the  soup  should  be  omitted.  Let  the 
vegetables  which  accompany  the  roast  be  such  as  are  most 
palatable  with  it  and  with  the  soup.  With  mutton,  tur- 
nips, sweet  potatoes,  cauliflower,  rice,  etc.,  taste  well. 
They  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  carbohydrate  (with  potatoes) 
which  the  mutton,  rich  in  protein,  needs.  It  would  no 
doubt  be  well  for  us  to  serve  acid  fruits  with  meats  more 
than  we  do.  With  roast  mutton,  currant  jelly,  apple  sauce 
or  baked  apples  are  very  appetizing.  Either  apple  sauce 
or  baked  apples  are  an  addition  to  roast  pork.  These  not 
only  gratify  the  palate,  but  they  furnish  the  system  some 
of  the  acids  which  its  welfare  demands.  When  but  two 
courses  are  used  in  a  dinner,  let  those  two  be  the  roast, 


FOODS   AND   DIET.  419 

with  its  accompanying  vegetables,  and  a  salad.  The 
system  needs  the  vegetable  as  well  as  the  fruit  acids  to 
keep  it  in  a  healthful  condition.  It  would  often  be  better 
for  the  family  to  dispense  almost  wholly  with  desserts,, 
except  that  fruit  or  some  light  form  of  dessert  may  be 
used.  Pies  and  puddings  are  very  fruitful  causes  of  the 
pernicious  habit  of  overeating.  In  a  lunch  in! which  a  bean 
or  lentil  soup  is  used,  tomatoes  are  a  very  acceptable  veg- 
etable. They  are  pleasant  with  soup,  and  furnish  the 
needed  acid. 

Broiled  chicken,  watercress,  and  creamed  potatoes  al- 
most make  the  mouth  water  at  their  mere  mention,  so 
plainly  do  they  show  that  such  a  combination  is  the  work 
of  an  artist.  Onions  seem  to  give  to  pork  what  it  lacks 
in  flavor.  With  turkey  or  chicken,  stewed  peaches,  brown- 
ed apples,  or  apple  sauce  may  occasionally  take  the  place 
of  the  accustomed  cranberry  sauce  with  good  effect.  With 
chicken  or  turkey,  many  vegetables  harmonize  well,  as  to- 
matoes, corn,  sweet  potatoes,  hubbard  squash,  cold  slaw, 
etc.  Squash  and  corn,  squash  and  peas,  squash  and  beets 
should  not  appear  on  the  bill  of  fare  together. 

In  combining  foods  to  suit  the  taste,  we  wish  to  produce 
a  pleasing  harmony  or  a  happy  contrast.  Sliced  cooked 
carrots,  seasoned  with  salt,  pepper,  and  vinegar,  may  be 
used  with  broiled  fish,  instead  of  sliced  cucumbers,  for  the 
sake  of  variety.  A  little  onion  mixed  with  sliced  cucum- 
bers gives  them  a  pleasing  flavor.  Many  of  these  combina- 
tions cannot  be  made  by  the ;  farmer's  wife  or  daughter 
unless  she  can  have  the  variety  of  foods  to  work  with. 
The  farmer  has  much  to  do  with  the  cooking,  and  es- 
pecially with  the  combination  of  foods.  With  the  modern 
horse  garden  tools,  and  with  the  knowledge  of  good  hardy 
and  large  yielding  varieties  of  vegetables,  berries,  and 
other  fruits  which  are  now  in  reach  of  most  farmers,  there 
is  no  good  excuse  for  such  a  lack  of  variety  of  foods  as  is 
sometimes  found.  These  implements  and  better  varieties, 
and  this  available  knowledge  of  gardening,  have  greatly 


420  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE 

cheapened  the  price  of  vegetables  and  fruits  to  the  town 
people.  Gardens  properly  planted  in  rows,  and  cultivated 
largely  with  horse  tools,  will  cheapen  the  berries  and  other 
luxurious  necessities  from  the  garden.  Twenty  dollars 
expended  in  a  horse  hoe,  a  hand  wheel  hoe,  a  garden  seed 
drill,  and  a  few  good  books  on  vegetables  and  fruit  grow- 
ing, is  ofttimes  a  better  investment  than  a  new  grain,  bind- 
er, or  even  a  threshing  outfit.  Always  remember  the 
garden,  the  need  of  a  reasonable  variety  of  food,  and  the 
weary  woman  who  tries  to  make  appetizing  meals  on  the 
wheat  farm,  before  spreading  out  on  more  land  to  be  cov- 
ered with  mortgages  and  weeds. 

The  housewife  on  the  farm  finds  it  difficult  to  have  much 
fresh  meat  during  the  summer,  as  she  is  often  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  market.  In  winter  it  is  an  easy  matter  to 
have  plenty  of  it  at  home,  and  she  is  not  dependent  on  the 
market.  On  the  farm  during  the  summer  there  are  plenty 
of  nice  salted  meats  of  all  kinds.  Fresh-laid  eggs  are 
abundant.  No  one  has  better  young  chickens  or  finer- 
flavored  fowls.  There  is  plenty  of  pure  sweet  milk  and 
golden  June  butter.  A  little  codfish  and  salted  fish  in  the 
storeroom  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  in  the  line  of  meat. 
If  the  housewife  has  a  good  garden,  plenty  of  small  friuts, 
and  a  well-laden  orchard,  she  needs  just  one  thing  more  to 
enable  her  to  feed  her  family  in  the  most  approved  style, 
and  that  is  an  abundance  of  physical  strength.  For  she 
has  not  only  to  provide  for  the  present  needs,  but,  like 
the  ant,  she  must  prepare  for  the  winter  that  surely  will 
come,  when  fruits  and  vegetables  will  be  needed  to  give 
bulk  to  the  otherwise  too-concentrated  diet. 

References:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  23, 
pp.  6-8,  12,  15;  Univ.  Minn.,  Chemical  Division,  Bulletin  No.  54, 
p.  68;  Feeds  &  Feeding — Henry — pp.  40,  41;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  121;  Food  and  Its  Functions — James 
Knight;  Disorders  of  Digestion — Dr.  Burdon  Sanderson.  For 
a  treatise  on  therapeutics,  see  Gilman  Thompson's  Food  Dietet- 
ics, U.  S.  Dept.  Agriculture,  Division  of  Chemistry,  Bulletin 
No.  13. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


CAKE  MAKING. 

The  two  principal  kinds  of  cake  are  sponge  cake  and 
butter  cake.  Butter  cakes  should  be  well  beaten  in  the 
making,  as  this  renders  them  lighter  and  finer  grained, 
and  they  require  less  soda  or  baking  powder.  Sponge  cake 
should  not  be  beaten,  or  it  will  be  close  and  tough.  Pastry 


Utensils  Used  in  Cake  Making. 

flour  should  be  used  for  both  kinds  of  cake,  as  they  will  be 
more  tender.  When  intending  to  bake  cake,  see  that  the 
fire  is  so  arranged  that  the  heat  will  be  right,  get  materials 
and  utensils  on  the  table  near  where  you  will  work.  When 
making  any  cake,  sift  flour  and  sugar  before  measuring. 
Fine  granulated  sugar  is  better  than  coarse.  Measure  all 
the  ingredients  except  the  extract  before  you  begin  to 
work.  When  baking  powder  is  used,  save  out  a  little 
flour,  and  mix  the  powder  with  it.  When  soda  is  used, 
mix  with  a  little  flour  and  put  in  same  as  baking  powder. 
A  thin  butter  cake  will  bake  in  twenty  to  twenty-five 
minutes.  If  thicker,  bake  longer,  but  not  too  long,  so  as 


422  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

to  shrink  too  much.     Fruit  cakes  should  bake  two  or  three 
hours.     They  are  better  steamed. 

When  creaming  butter  for  cake,  stir  until  soft  and  pli- 
able before  adding  any  sugar.  The  creaming  will  thus  re- 
quire much  less  labor  and  time. 

When  eggs  are  used,  measure  instead  of  counting,  for 
eggs  vary  so  much  in  size  that  you  have  not  always  the 
same  amount,  if  by  count.  If  you  wish  a  light  and  feath- 
ery mass,  as  in  angel  or  sponge  cake,  beat  the  whites  of 
the  eggs  with  an  egg  whip  of  some  kind.  If  you  wish 
the  mixture  to  be  light,  fine  grained,  and  delicate,  use  the 
dover  beater  on  both  yolk  and  white.  Always  beat  the 
yolk  until  thick  and  lemon  colored. 

It  is  well  for  the  amateur  to  protect  bottom  and  sides  of 
a  cake  with  a  greased  white  paper  lining  in  the  pan,  as 
this  prevents  a  too  hot  fire  having  so  deleterious  effects.  A 
bed  of  sand  or  a  thick  paper  under  the  cake  aids  in  this. 

The  usual  proportions  in  cakes  are  one  part  butter,  one 
part  milk,  two  parts  sugar,  and  four  parts  flour.  Too 
much  sugar,  too  much  butter,  or  too  little  flour  will  give  a 
heavy  cake. 

To  Make  a  Butter  Cake. 

First  measure  the  sifted  flour  and  sugar.  Wipe  the 
measure,  and  measure  the  eggs,  pour  them  out,  and  meas- 
ure the  butter.  Have  baking  powder  in  a  little  flour.  Stir 
the  butter  until  soft  and  pliable  before  adding  any  sugar, 
then  beat  the  sugar  in  a  little  at  a  time.  Stir  until  very 
white  and  creamy.  If  there  is  more  than  twice  as  much 
sugar  as  butter,  beat  a  part  of  the  sugar  with  the  egg 
yolks.  Beat  the  yolks  of  the  eggs  until  thick  and  lemon 
colored,  then  put  with  the  creamed  butter  and  sugar,  and 
beat  the  two  together.  Add  a  little  liquid,  and  beat  until 
thoroughly  incorporated,  then  add  a  little  flour,  beat  that 
in,  and  alternate  thus  until  all  is  used.  Add  the  flavoring, 
and  beat  that  in.  Then  with  a  clean  beater  beat  the  egg 
whites  stiff,  but  not  dry.  Be  sure  that  there  is  no  yolk  it* 


CAKE  MAKING.  423 

the  white,  as  it  will  not  beat  well  if  there  is.  Keep  eggs 
cold  for  beating.  Beat  in  the  baking  powder,  then  fold 
the  whites  in.  If  the  oven  is  too  hot  at  the  bottom  set  the 
cake  pan  on  a  little  salt  or  sand.  Have  the  oven  a  mod- 
erate heat.  Leave  the  cakes  in  the  pan  until  cooled  some. 
The  whole  eggs  unbeaten  may  be  put  into  the  cake  one 
at  a  time  after  the  flour  and  milk  have  been  thoroughly 
beaten  together.  After  adding  each  egg  to  the  dough 
carefully  stir  it  in  and  beat  until  thoroughly  incorporated 
before  adding  the  next.  This  manner  of  putting  in  the 
eggs  gives  a  fine-grained,  light,  moist  cake. 

Butter  Cake— For  Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  butter,  one- 
fourth  cup  of  milk  or  water,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  bak- 
ing powder,  three-fourths  cup  of  flour,  one  egg,  one  tea- 
spoonful  (scant)  of  flavoring. 

Butter  Cake — For  Home  Work. 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  one-half  cup 
of  milk  or  water,  one  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder 
(level),  one  and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  two  eggs.  Put 
together  and  bake  as  directed  for  making  butter  cake. 

Plain  Cake. 

One  cup  of  milk,  one  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of  sugar, 
three  cups  of  flour,  four  eggs.  Put  together  the  same 
as  directed  for  butter  cakes  in  general.  These  proportions 
can  be  used  for  any  plain  cake. 

Yolk  Cake— With  Water. 

Five  egg  yolks,  three-fourths  cup  of  sugar,  one-half 
cup  of  butter,  one-half  cup  of  water,  one  teaspoonful  bak- 
ing powder,  two  cups  very  soft  flour,  one  teaspoonful  ex- 
tract of  lemon.  Put  together  as  any  butter  cake.  If 
bread  flour  is  used,  take  less. 


424  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Gold  Cake. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  one-half  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  baking  powder,  yolks  of  four  eggs,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  extract  of  vanilla;  beat  the  yolks  of  eggs 
with  dover  beater  until  thick  and  lemon-colored.  Cream 
the  butter  and  sugar  by  first  stirring  the  butter  until  soft, 
then  add  the  sugar,  a  little  at  a  time,  and  beat  until  the 
whole  becomes  very  white.  Add  the  milk  and  flour  alter- 
nately, a  little  at  a  time,  thoroughly  incorporating  each 
addition  of  milk  or  flour  before  adding  the  next.  Add 
the  extract  and  beat  in  thoroughly,  then  add  the  baking 
powder  mixed  with  two  tablespoon fuls  of  flour,  which 
have  been  saved  out  for  the  purpose.  Lastly,  fold  the 
beaten  yolks  into  the  mixture,  put  into  pan  and  bake. 

Silver  Cake. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  one-half  cup  of  sweet 
milk,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  baking  powder,  four  egg  whites,  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  extract  of  lemon.  Put  together  same  as  gold 
cake. 

Joe's  Sponge  Cake. 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  flour,  one  teaspoonful  of 
baking  powder,  one-half  cup  of  cold  water  (scant),  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  teaspoonful  of  flavoring, 
four  egg  whites,  three  yolks.  Beat  the  yolks  slightly,  and 
add  the  sugar.  Then  beat  until  light.  Add  the  flour  and 
water  alternately,  and  fold  in  the  beaten  whites.  Bake 
forty  minutes  in  a  slow  oven. 

Sponge  Cake — Mrs.  Caldwell. 

One-half  cup  of  fine  granulated  or  pulverized  sugar, 
one-half  cup  of  pastry  flour,  three  eggs.  Whip  the  whites 
of  the  eggs,  and  when  they  are  about  half  beaten  sift  in 
one-third  of  a  tablespoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  con- 
tinue beating  until  the  eggs  are  very  stiff,  sift  in  the  sugar. 


CAKE  MAKING.  425 

Add  the  yolks  beaten  light  and  creamy.     Sift  and  fold  the 
flour  in  very  lightly.     Bake  in  a  very  slow  oven. 

Water  Sponge  Cake. 

Yolks  of  eleven  eggs,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  granu- 
lated sugar,  one  cup  of  cold  water,  one  teaspoonful  of 
mixed  flavoring  (one-half  lemon  and  one-half  vanilla), 
three  cups  of  flour,  sifted,  three  level  teaspoonfuls  of  bak- 
ing powder.  The  object  in  making  this  cake  is  to  use  the 
yolks  left  from  making  angel  cake.  Bake  in  a  rather  cool 
oven. 

Sponge  Cake — Mrs .  Ewing. 

Weigh  ten  eggs.  Take  equal  weight  of  sugar,  finely 
granulated  preferred.  One-half  as  much  by  weight  of 
flour  as  sugar.  Juice  of  one  lemon  with  most  of  peel 
grated.  Beat  eggs  separately.  Leave  out  two  of  the 
yolks.  Beat  yolks  as  light  as  possible,  add  to  them  the 
lemon  juice,  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  sugar,  and  into 
this  stir  the  flour.  Beat  the  whites  very  light,  and  add  to 
them  the  remainder  of  the  sugar,  fold  this  into  the  mixture 
of  yolks,  lemon  juice,  and  flour.  Bake  in  a  slow  oven 
forty-five  minutes  or  more. 

Angel  Cake— For  Home  Work. 

One  cup  white  of  egg,  one  cup  winter  wheat  flour,  one 
and  one- fourth  cups  of  fine  granulated  sugar,  one  level 
teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  one  teaspoonful  of  almond 
extract.  Eggs  vary  so  much  in  size  that  it  is  better  to 
take  a  certain  measure  of  the  white  than  a  definite  num- 
ber of  eggs.  Put  the  measured  whites  in  an  earthen 
bowl,  break  lightly  with  an  egg  whip,  sift  in  the  cream 
of  tartar,  and  beat  until  the  eggs  will  cling  to  the  bowl 
and  not  slip  out  if  the  bowl  is  turned  upside  down.  Add 
the  extract.  Then  fold  sugar  and  flour,  which  have  been 
sifted  together,  into  the  egg,  sifting  it  in  gradually,  and 
stirring  only  enough  to  combine  it  with  the  egg.  Put 
the  mixture  in  an  ungreased  pan,  the  bottom  of  which  has 
beea  covered  with  white  paper,  place  carefully  in  an  oven 


426  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

of  moderate  temperature,  and  cover  with  a  baking  sheet 
or  tin,  so  as  to  protect  the  top  of  the  cake,  but  not  exclude 
the  air.  Remove  the  cover  in  half  an  hour,  when  the 
cake  should  be  perfectly  risen,  and  bake  half  an  hour 
longer.  When  taken  from  the  oven,  turn  the  pan  bottom 
upwards,  and  if  it  has  no  legs,  rest  it  upon  cups  or  bowls 
until  the  cake  is  perfectly  cold.  Then  remove  by  slip- 
ping a  thin-bladed  knife  between  the  cake  and  the  sides  of 
the  pan.  Success  in  making  angel  cake  depends  largely 
upon  having  an  oven  of  the  proper  temperature.  If  the 
oven  is  too  warm,  the  cake  will  be  tough. 

Angel  Cake — For  Class  Work. 

One-fourth  cup  of  flour,  one-fourth  cup  of  sugar,  and 
one  tablespoonful  more,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  cream 
of  tartar,  one-fourth  cup  of  egg  white,  one-fourth  tea- 
spoonful  of  extract  of  almond.  Put  together  same  as 
larger  rule.  Bake  in  very  slow  oven. 

Cream  Cake  or  Koll  Cake — For  Class  Work. 

Scant  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  sugar,  generous  two- 
thirds  of  a  cup  of  flour,  two  medium-sized  eggs,  two- 
thirds  of  a  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  water  (cold),  one-eighth  of  a  tablespoonful  of 
salt,  four  drops  of  flavoring. 

Beat  the  eggs  with  a  dover  beater  until  thick  and  lemon 
colored,  add  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  sugar,  and  beat  with  a 
spoon  until  well  mixed;  then  add  flour,  in  which  is  sifted 
the  baking  powder  and  salt;  then  add  the  flavoring,  and 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water.  Stir  until  well  mixed. 
Bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Cream  Cake  or  Boll  Cake— For  Home  Work. 

Beat  three  eggs  until  very  light,  then  add  one  cup  of 
sugar  (scant),  and  stir  until  well  mixed.  Then  add  a 
cup  of  flour,  minus  one  tablespoonful,  and,  when  mixed, 
add  three  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water.  Lastly  add  the 
tablespoonful  of  flour,  plus  two  teaspoonfuls  of  baking 
powder,  and  stir  until  mixed.  Flavor  with  one  teaspoon- 


CAKE  MAKING.  427 

fill  of  lemon  or  vanilla.  Bake  in  greased  papered  pans  in 
an  oven  a  little  hotter  than  for  sponge  cake.  If  for  cream 
cake,  bake  in  pie  tins  in  three  layers,  but  if  for  roll  cake, 
bake  in  a  large  pan  in  one  layer,  making  a  thin  sheet. 

Filling  for  Cream  or  Koll  Cake. 

One  cup  of  milk,  one  egg,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  corn- 
starch,  one  tablespoonful  of  granulated  sugar.  Put  the 
cornstarch  into  a  bowl,  and  mix  it  with  one-fourth  of  a 
cup  of  the  milk,  pouring  on  a  little  at  a  time,  to  prevent 
lumping.  Heat  the  remainder  of  the  milk,  and  add  to  the 
cornstarch  mixture.  Return  to  the  saucepan  and  cook 
five  minutes  after  it  reaches  the  boiling  point,  stirring 
constantly.  When  done,  add  it  to  the  egg  yolk,  pouring 
slowly,  and  stirring  well  to  insure  a  smooth  mixture.  Re- 
turn to  the  fire,  let  reach  the  boiling  point,  and  pour  over 
the  egg  whites  and  sugar  beaten  together.  Mix  well  and 
add  to  the  cake  when  cool  enough  not  to  soak.  Turn  the 
cake  when  done  onto  a  board  dusted  with  powdered 
sugar.  With  a  sharp  knife  trim  a  narrow  strip  from  each 
edge,  cover  with  the  filling,  and  roll.  Wrap  a  narrow, 
white  cloth  about  the  cake  to  hold  it  in  place  until  it  cools. 

Whipped  cream,  sweetened  and  flavored,  may  be  used, 
and  is  far  better  for  cream  cake  than  the  fillings. 

Sunshine  Cake. 

One  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  three-fourths  of  a 
cup  of  egg  white,  one-fourth  of  a  cup  of  egg  yolk,  one 
cup  of  flour  and  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  cup 
of  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  extract  of  lemon  and  vanilla 
in  equal  parts.  Beat  the  egg  yolks  until  stiff  and  lemon- 
colored  and  add  the  flavoring.  Add  the  cream  of  tartar 
and  salt  to  the  egg  white  and  beat  until  stiff,  but  not  dry, 
then  fold  white  and  yolk  carefully  together.  Fold  the 
sugar  and  flour,  which  have  been  sifted  together,  into  this 
egg  mixture  and  bake  forty-five  minutes  in  a  slow  oven. 
Keep  the  cake  covered  during  the  first  twenty  minutes.  It 
should  be  well  risen  in  twenty  minutes,  but  browned  lit- 


428  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

tie.  To  prepare  a  pan  for  sunshine  or  angel  cake  wipe 
out  well  and  fit  a  white  paper  over  the  bottom,  but  leave 
the  pan  without  grease.  When  the  cake  is  done,  turn  the 
pan  upside  down  on  a  support  which  just  touches  the 
edges  of  the  pan  and  allow  to  cool.  If  done,  it  will  not 
fall  from  the  pan,  and  is  lighter  for  hanging  so. 

Sunshine  Cake— Class  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  egg,  one  yolk,  the  rest  white,  one- 
fourth  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of  flour,  one-fourth 
teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar,  a  dust  of  salt,  four  drops 
of  lemon  and  vanilla  extract  in  equal  parts.  Make  and 
bake  same  as  directed  for  sunshine  cake. 

Cottage  Pudding— Class  Rule. 

Flour  one-half  a  cup,  less  two  tablespoonfuls,  soda 
one-eighth  of  a  teaspoonful,  salt  one-eighth  of  a  teaspoon- 
ful, one-half  of  a  beaten  egg,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  su- 
gar, two  teaspoonfuls  of  butter  (melted),  one- fourth  cup 
of  sour  milk,  two  drops  of  lemon  extract.  Put  the  milk, 
salt,  melted  butter  and  sugar  into  a  bowl,  add  the  flour,  a 
little  at  a  time,  beating  well,  then  the  egg,  and  beat  well, 
then  the  extract,  and  put  into  a  buttered  baking  tin.  Bake 
twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes. 

Cottage  Pudding— Home  Rule. 

Flour  two  cups,  soda  one-half  teaspoonful,  two  small 
eggs,  or  one  large  one,  two-thirds  of  a  cupful  of  sugar, 
one  cup  of  sour  milk  and  three  tablespoonfuls  of  melted 
butter.  Put  together  same  as  in  Class  Rule. 

White  Cake. 

One  cup  of  cold  water,  three  and  one-half  cups  of 
pastry  flour,  or  three  cups  of  bread  flour,  three-fourths  of 
a  cup  of  egg  white,  one-half  cup  of  butter  (scant),  three 
level  teaspoonsfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of 
extract  of  lemon.  Cream  the  butter  and  then  add  the 
sugar  a  little  at  a  time  and  cream  the  two  together.  Add 
the  water  and  flour  alternately,  incorporating  the  one  be- 


CAKE  MAKING.  429 

fore  adding  the  next.  Add  the  baking  powder  with  the 
last  of  the  flour,  then  stir  the  extract  into  the  mixture,  and 
lastly  fold  the  beaten  whites  into  the  dough.  Bake  in 
two  parts  in  a  moderate  oven  for  about  twenty  minutes 
covered,  and  then  uncover  and  bake  until  it  ceases  to  tick 
when  the  ear  is  put  near.  Bake  all  together  if  desired, 
but  give  more  time  in  the  oven. 

Miss  Pike's  White  Cake. 

One  cup  of  egg  whites,  one-half  cup  of  butter,  two  and 
one-half  cups  of  flour  (very  soft  flour;  take  less  flour  if 
bread  flour  is  used),  one  and  one-half  cups  of  granulated 
sugar,  two  level  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder,  one  cup  of 
water,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  extract.  Put  together  and 
bake  as  any  white  cake. 

Marshmallow  Cake. 

Two  cups  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  milk,  three-fourths  cup 
of  butter,  two  and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  six  egg  whites, 
one  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of 
vanilla.  Cream  the  butter  and  sugar.  Add  flour  and  milk 
alternately,  a  little  at  a  time.  Put  baking  powder  in  last 
of  flour.  Fold  in  beaten  eggs  last. 
Filling  for  Marshmallow  Cake. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  phosphate  gelatine  and  enough  of 
the  pink  to  color.  Soak  in  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  wa- 
ter half  an  hour.  Pour  on  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  boiling 
water,  stir  till  the  gelatine  is  dissolved.  Sift  in  pow- 
dered sugar  until  very  thick.  Beat  until  stiff  after  it 
cools  to  the  consistency  of  honey.  Spread  on  the  cake 
while  still  pliable,  and  set  in  a  cool  place.  Flavor  to 
taste  before  beginning  to  beat. 
Caramel  Cake. 

One-fourth  cup  butter,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth 
cup  of  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  pastry  flour,  or  one 
and  one-fourth  of  bread  flour,  one  level  teaspoonful  of 
baking  powder,  two  eggs,  one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla,  one- 
eighth  teaspoonful  of  grated  nutmeg.  Beat  the  eggs 


430  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

separately.  Cream  the  butter,  then  add  a  part  of  the 
sugar,  and  cream  together,  and  add  the  rest  of  the  sugar 
to  the  beaten  yolks. ,  Put  the  nutmeg  in  the  yolks,  add  milk 
and  flour  alternately,  incorporating  one  before  adding 
the  other,  each  time.  Put  the  baking  powder  in  with  the 
last  bit  of  flour,  add  the  vanilla,  then  carefully  fold  in  the 
whites.  Bake  in  layers.  Put  together  with  caramel  fill- 
ing. 

Filling  for  Caramel  Cake. 

One  teaspoonful  of  glucose,  one-half  cup  brown  sugar 
and  one-fourth  cup  of  milk.  Cook  the  mixture  until  it 
forms  a  soft  ball  in  cold  water,  let  cool  a  little,  and  beat 
until  it  clouds  a  little.  Flavor  with  vanilla,  stir  full  of 
chopped  English  walnuts,  and  spread  on  the  cake.  The 
glucose  is  not  necessary,  except  that  it  prevents  graining 
so  readily. 

Maude's  Cake. 

One-half  cup  butter,  one  and  one-half  cups  sugar,  one 
teaspoonful  extract,  three  cups  flour  (three  and  three- 
fourths  if  very  soft  flour),  one  cup  liquid  (water  makes 
a  more  delicate  mixture  than  milk),  three  level  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  baking  powder,  four  whole  eggs.  Put  together 
as  directed  in  cake  making  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven 
until  you  cease  to  hear  a  ticking  when  putting  the  ear 
near  the  cake,  or  until  the  cake  shrinks  from  the  pan. 

Hibbon  Cake. 

One  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  milk, 
four  cups  of  flour,  four  eggs,  four  level  teaspoonfuls  of 
baking  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla.  Put  together 
as  directed  for  butter  cakes  in  general,  and  bake  two  lay- 
ers plain.  Into  the  remaining  dough  stir  three-quarters 
of  a  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  and  half  a  teaspoonful  of 
grated  nutmeg,  one  cup  of  seeded  raisins,  one-half  cup  of 
English  currants,  and  one-quarter  cup  of  citron.  Cut  all 
very  fine,  and  roll  in  flour  before  adding  to  the  dough. 
Put  together  with  white  frosting. 


CAKE  MAKING.  431 

Spiced  Cake  No,  1. 

Use  one-half  the  quantity  of  the  ingredients  for  ribbon 
cake  and  the  whole  quantity  of  spices. 
Spiced  Cake  No,  2, 

One-half  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup 
of  milk,  two  cups  of  flour,  two  eggs,  two  level  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  baking  powder,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  vanilla, 
three-fourths  of  a  teaspoonful  of  cinnamon,  one-half  a 
teaspoonful  of  nutmeg  and  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoonful 
each  of  cloves  and  allspice.  Mix  the  spices  with  the  flour 
and  put  together  as  butter  cakes  in  general. 

Marbled  Chocolate  Cake. 

Two  ounces  of  chocolate,^  four  eggs  separated,  one-half 
cup  of  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla,  one-half  cup  of 
butter,  one  and  three-fourths  cups  of  flour,  one  and  one- 
half  cups  of  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder. 
Dissolve  the  grated  chocolate  in  five  tablespoonfuls  of 
boiling  water.  Cream  the  butter  and  sugar,  beat  the  yolks 
until  thick  and  lemon  colored,  add  them  to  the  creamed 
butter  and  sugar,  and  beat  thoroughly.  Add  milk  and 
flour  alternately,  beating  vigorously  between.  Take  out 
one-half  cup  of  the  mixture,  and  beat  the  chocolate  into 
the  rest.  Take  a  tablespoonful  of  the  well-beaten  egg 
whites,  and  fold  the  rest  into  the  cake  dough.  Color  the 
portion  in  the  cup  with  a  maroon  vegetable  paste  (bought 
for  the  purpose),  fold  in  the  spoonful  of  egg  white, 
then  put  into  the  cake,  and  stir  just  enough  to  marble  it. 
Put  into  the  pans  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven  about 
forty-five  minutes. 

Chocolate  Cake — Mrs.  Hays. 

Two  cups  of  granulated  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter, 
four  egg  yolks,  well  beaten,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  choco- 
late, dissolved  in  five  tablespoonfuls  of  boiling  water, 
two-thirds  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  and  'two-thirds  cups  of 
flour,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  four  egg 
whites,  well  beaten.  Put  together  in  order  in  which  they 
are  given,  folding  the  egg  whites  in  carefully  last. 


432  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Fruit  Cake — Mrs.  Lugger. 

Three-fourths  pound  of  flour,  three-fourths  pound  of 
sugar,  one-half  pound  of  butter,  two  pounds  of  currants, 
two  pounds  of  raisins,  one  pound  of  citron,  six  eggs,  one- 
half  pound  of  dates,  one-half  pound  of  figs,  fine  cut,  one 
glass  of  grape  juice,  one  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Bake  three 
hours.  It  will  keep  a  year,  if  you  wish. 

Fruit  Cake — Mrs.  Preston. 

Four  cups  of  flour,  two  cups  of  sugar,  two  cups  of  but- 
ter, one  cup  of  sweet  milk,  five  eggs,  four  cups  of  raisins, 
two  cups  of  currants,  one  cup  of  citron,  one  teaspoonful 
of  soda,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  cream  of  tartar.  Flavor  to 
taste.  Put  together  as  butter  cake.  Roll  fruit  in  flour 
before  adding.  Bake  three  hours. 

Fig  Cake. 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of  butter,  one  egg, 
well  beaten,  one  cup  of  water,  two  cups  of  flour,  two  level 
teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one  teaspoonful  of  extract. 
Cream  the  butter  with  part  of  the  sugar,  then  beat  the  rest 
into  the  egg  after  it  has  been  beaten  until  light.  Mix 
the  flour  and  water  with  creamed  butter  and  sugar,  using 
them  alternately,  stir  in  the  egg  and  extract,  and  lastly  the 
baking  powder  in  a  small  amount  of  flour.  Bake  in  a 
moderately  hot  cake  oven.  This  makes  two  layers  an  inch 
or  more  thick.  Use  any  filling  desired. 

Fig  Filling. 

Cut  up  one-half  pound  of  figs  and  one-half  pound  of 
raisins  (seeded),  and  cook  together  in  boiling  water. 
Blanch  one-half  pound  of  almonds,  and  hash  very  fine. 
Mix  with  the  cooked  figs  and  raisins.  Sweeten  and 
flavor.  If  too  stiff,  add  a  little  more  water,  and  spread 
between  the  layers. 

Pound  Cake. 

Wash  and  squeeze  in  a  napkin  half  a  pound  of  butter. 
Beat  it  with  the  hand  until  it  is  quite  creamy,  then  add 


CAKE  MAKING.  433 

one-half  a  pound  of  sugar.  Beat  until  it  is  very  white  and 
light,  then  add  one  egg,  and  beat  until  incorporated 
thoroughly,  then  add  another,  and  beat,  so  continue  until 
five  eggs  have  been  used.  Take  great  care  that  each  egg 
is  completely  incorporated  before  the  next  is  added.  This 
requires  from  three  to  five  minutes  beating  each  egg,  and 
on  sufficient  beating  the  success  of  the  cake  depends. 
When  the  eggs,  sugar,  and  butter  are  a  thick  yellow  mass, 
add  gradually  a  cupful  of  fruit  juice  and  one-fourth  of  a 
cup  of  rose  water.  Mix  well  together,  then  sift  into  this 
one-half  a  pound  of  flour,  to  which  one-eighth  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt  has  been  added.  When  the  flour  is  well 
mixed,  put  into  a  cake  pan  with  straight  (upright)  sides, 
with  buttered  paper  neatly  fitted  in  it,  sift  powdered  sugar 
over  the  surface.  Bake  the  cake  one  and  one-half  hours 
in  a  very  slow  oven.  It  should  have  a  cover  laid  over  the 
top  for  the  first  hour.  This  may  then  be  removed,  and  the 
cake  allowed  to  brown  slowly.  In  turning,  be  most  care- 
ful not  to  shake  or  jar  the  cake. 
Lady  Fingers. 

One  teaspoonful  of  extract  of  lemon,  three  eggs,  one- 
half  cup  of  sugar  (scant),  one-half  cup  of  flour,  grated 
rind  of  half  a  lemon.  Beat  the  yolks  until  thick  and 
lemon-colored,  then  add  the  flavoring;  thoroughly  mix 
the  sugar  and  flour,  and  stir  into  the  beaten  yolks.  Beat 
the  whites  very  stiff.  Fold  the  whites  and  yolks  together 
carefully  by  pouring  the  yolks  on  the  whites,  and  folding 
just  enough  to  mix  well, — too  much  will  ruin  it.  The 
oven  must  be  of  such  a  heat  as  will  turn  a  paper  yellow 
in  five  minutes.  If  the  oven  is  too  hot,  the  cakes  will  fall. 
Line  the  baking  pans  with  paper,  and  dust  with  sugar  and 
flour  in  equal  parts.  Use  pastry  bag  with  a  tube  one- 
half  inch  in  diameter. 

In  forming  the  lady  fingers,  bring  to  bear  little  pres- 
sure at  first,  and  increase  it  toward  the  end.  Let  there 
be  no  delay  in  getting  it  into  the  oven. 


434  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Ginger  Bread— Home  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  molasses,  one- 
fourth  cup  of  sour  milk  or  cream  (use  more  butter  with 
milk),  one  cup  of  flour  (scant),  two  teaspoonsfuls  of  but- 
ter (four,  if  milk  is  used),  one  egg,  well  beaten,  three- 
fourths  teaspoonful  of  ginger,  three-fourths  teaspoonful 
of  cinnamon,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  soda.  Mix  the 
melted  butter  with  the  sugar.  Mix  the  molasses,  sour 
milk,  and  soda  together.  Beat  the  egg,  and  put  with  this, 
and  put  into  it  the  creamed  butter  and  sugar,  and  into  this 
stir  the  flour,  with  which  the  spices  have  been  mixed. 
Beat  well,  and  bake  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Ginger  Cake— Class  Rule. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  one-half  tablespoonful  of 
butter,  one  tablespoonful  of  beaten  egg,  one-fourth  cup  of 
flour,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  baking  powder,  one-fourth 
cup  of  molasses,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  milk,  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  ginger  and  cinnamon  each,  a  speck 
of  soda.  Put  together  and  bake  same  as  gingerbread. 

Coffee  Ginger  Cake— Home  Rule. 

One-half  cup  of  coffee,  one-half  cup  of  sugar,  two  ta- 
blespoonfuls of  butter,  one  egg  (well  beaten),  one  and 
one-half  cups  of  flour,  one  and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of 
baking  powder,  one  cup  of  sorghum  molasses,  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  ginger  and  the  same  of  cinnamon,  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Put  together  as  above. 
Coffee  Ginger  Cake— Class  Rule. 

Sugar  two  level  tablespoonfuls,  butter  one-half  table- 
spoonful,  eggs  two  level  tablespoonfuls  (about  one- fourth 
of  an  egg),  flour  one-fourth  of  a  cup  plus  two  table- 
spoonfuls,  baking  powder  three-fourths  of  a  teaspoonful, 
sorghum  molasses  one-fourth  of  a  cup,  ginger  one-eighth 
of  a  teaspoonful,  cinnamon  one-eighth  of  a  teaspoonful, 
salt  one-eighth  of  a  teaspoonful,  coffee  (cold  from  break- 
fast) two  tablespoonfuls.  If  the  molasses  is  at  all  acid,  a 
very  little  soda  must  be  used. 


CAKE  MAKING.  435 

Raised  Doughnuts. 

When  the  dough  for  buns  is  ready  to  shape,  roll  on  the 
molding  board,  cut  into  doughnuts,  and  fry  in  hot  fat. 
When  done,  dust  with  powdered  sugar  and  cinnamon. 

Doughnuts  with  Soda. 

One  egg,  three-fourths  cup  of  sour  milk,  three-fourths 
cup  of  sour  cream,  one  level  teaspoonful  of  soda,  one  level 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-half  level  teaspoonful  of  cinna- 
mon, one  cup  of  sugar,  four  level  cups  of  sifted  flour. 
This  makes  about  four  dozen  doughnuts. 

Doughnuts  with  Baking  Powder. 

Make  same  as  doughnuts  with  soda,  except  use  sweet 
milk  and  four  generous  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder 
instead  of  sour  milk  and  soda. 

Class  Rule  for  Doughnuts  with  Soda,  Using  Fat  Instead  of 
Cream. 

One-fourth  cup  of  sour  milk,  one-fourth  cup  of  sugar, 
three-fourths  cup  and  three  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  melted  fat,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  slightly 
beaten  egg,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  soda  (sifted  with 
the  flour),  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-sixth  tea- 
spoonful  of  cinnamon. 

Almond  Wafers. 

One-half  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  powdered  sugar,  two 
cups  of  flour,  one-half  cup  of  cold  water.  Cream  the  but- 
ter and  sugar.  Add  flour  and  water  alternately, 
thoroughly  incorporating  the  one  portion  before  adding 
more,  and  so  continue  until  all  is  used.  Add  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  almond  extract.  Spread  thinly  as  possible  on 
greased  baking  sheets.  Scatter  shredded  almonds  thickly 
over  the  top,  and  bake.  Cut  in  squares  as  soon  as  taken 
from  the  oven,  remove  from  tin,  and. roll,  if  desired.  They 
must  be  cut,  removed  from  pan  and  rolled  quickly,  as  they 
soon^cool  and  lose  all  elasticity. 


436  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Ginger  Snaps. 

One  cup  of  lard,  two  cups  of  molasses,  one  level  table- 
spoonful  of  ginger,  two  cups  flour.  Put  lard  and  molas- 
ses together,  and  when  it  boils  stir  in  the  ginger,  cool  a 
very  little,  then  stir  in  the  flour.  Let  get  perfectly  cold, 
then  roll  very  thin,  and  bake  in  a  hot  oven.  Be  careful 
that  they  do  not  burn.  Things  containing  molasses  burn 
readily. 

Ginger  Snaps— Class  Rule. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  lard,  one-fourth  of  a  cup  of  mo- 
lasses, one  generous  teaspoonful  of  ginger,  one-eighth 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-half  cup  of  flour.  Put  the  lard 
and  molasses  over  the  fire  and  when  boiling  put  in  the 
ginger  and  stir  thoroughly.  When  cooled  a  little  stir  the 
flour  into  it  and  allow  to  get  perfectly  cold  and  stiff  before 
rolling.  Roll  very  thin  and  bake  in  an  oven  a  little  cooler 
than  for  white  cookies,  as  they  burn  readily. 

Cookies  with  Soda. 

Three  cups  of  flour,  one  cup  of  sour  cream,  two  cups 
of  sugar,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one-half  tea- 
spoonful  soda,  and  a  little  salt,  one  teaspoonful  (scant) 
lemon  extract.  Bake  in  quite  a  hot  oven.  Let  set  on 
bottom  of  oven  until  well  risen  and  brown  on  bottom,  then 
place  a  few  minutes  on  the  grate. 

Cookies — For  Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  sour  cream,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one 
tablespoonful  of  butter,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  soda,  a 
little  salt,  scant  half  teaspoonful  of  extract.  Make  soft  as 
it  is  possible  to  roll  out,  using  plenty  of  flour. 

Cookies  with  Baking  Powder. 

One-fourth  cup  butter,  one-half  cup  sugar,  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  milk,  one  egg,  one  teaspoonful  of  baking 
powder,  one  cup  flour.  Cream  the  butter  and  sugar,  add 
the  milk  and  unbeaten  egg  and  the  flavoring,  then  beat  in 
the  flour  same  as  in  making  cake.  Add  the  baking  powder, 


CAKE  MAKING.  437 

mixed  with  a  little  of  the  flour,  last.     Roll  and  bake  in  a 
quick  oven. 

Oatmeal  Cookies— Mrs.  Green. 

Three  cups  of  rolled  oats,  one  cup  of  wheat  flour,  four 
teaspoonfuls  of  milk,  one  cup  of  butter,  two  eggs,  two 
teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  va- 
nilla, one  cup  of  sugar.  Mix  quite  stiff,  and  drop  from 
a  spoon  in  greased  pans.  Bake  slowly  about  half  an  hour. 

Kisses. 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  water.  Boil  until  it 
will  thread,  then  pour  boiling  hot  over  the  well-beaten 
white  of  one  egg,  flavor  with  rose  water,  and,  when  stiff 
enough  to  lay  up  in  teaspoonsfuls  on  oiled  paper,  put  into 
a  very  moderate  oven  and  cook  or  dry  for  about  twenty 
minutes. 

Cocoanut  Macaroons. 

One  cup  of  dessicated  cocoanut,  one-half  cup  of  pulver- 
ized sugar,  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  cornstarch,  two  egg 
whites.  Mix  sugar  and  cornstarch,  fold  into  the  well- 
beaten  egg  whites,  stir  in  the  cocoanut,  and  bake  on  but- 
tered paper  in  a  slow  oven  not  less  than  forty  minutes. 

Almond  Macaroons. 

Two  ounces  of  almond  paste,  or  one-sixth  of  a  pound 
of  almonds,  one  egg  white,  one- fourth  cup  (generous)  of 
powdered  sugar,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  extract  of 
almond  or  orange  flower  water,  used  to  prevent  oiling 
when  the  almonds  are  pounded.  Blanch,  dry,  grind,  and 
pound  the  almonds,  adding  extract  or  water  and  sugar 
gradually.  When  the  nuts  are  fine,  add  the  whites  beaten 
almost  stiff,  and  beat  well  together.  Use  one  teaspoonful 
of  water  to  one-half  pound  of  nuts.  Never  use  more  than 
a  teaspoonful  of  extract  to  a  half  pound  of  nuts.  May  use 
both  the  extract  and  the  water.  The  whites  of  two  eggs 
is  sufficient  for  half  a  pound,  unless  eggs  are  very  small. 
Try.  the  mixture,  and  if  too  soft  to  form,  add  a  few  more 


438  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

nuts.  For  baking,  oil  the  pan,  then  rub  off  all  you  can, 
and  flour  it.  The  dough  is  best  put  on  with  a  pastry  bag, 
but  may  be  put  on  from  a  teaspoon,  and  smoothed  with  a 
knife  and  hot  water.  Much  depends  on  a  very  moderate 
oven  in  baking1.  Leave  in  the  oven  fifteen  to  twenty 
minutes,  or  until  a  delicate  brown.  It  is  easier  to  beat  the 
egg  whites  in  a  bowl,  adding  the  sugar  and  nuts  alter- 
nately, and  continue  the  beating  until  the  mixture  will 
stand.  Then  add  the  extract,  put  into  little  balls,  and 
smooth  with  a  knife  wet  in  hot  water. 

When  using  almond  paste,  use  a  little  less  sugar  and 
four  egg  whites  to  half  a  pound  of  paste.  In  using  the 
paste,  it  is  better  to  take  the  second  rule  for  mixing,  viz., 
make  a  frosting  of  egg  whites  and  sugar,  and  stir  paste 
into  it. 
Nut  Filling  for  Layer  Cake. 

Chop  fine  equal  parts  of  citron  and  English  walnuts, 
soak  full  of  lemon  juice,  thicken  with  powdered  sugar, 
and  spread  on  the  layers  of  cake. 

Orange  Filling  for  Cake. 

Juice  of  two  oranges,  with  grated  peel  of  one  (or  sub- 
stitute extract),  one  cup  of  sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of 
butter,  two  eggs.  Beat  the  yolks  light,  add  the  sugar, 
butter,  and  orange  juice,  stir  over  the  fire  until  it  thickens, 
then  fold  in  the  whites,  which  have  been  beaten  stiff. 
Spread  between  the  layers  of  cake. 

Banana  Filling  for  Cake. 

Add  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice  to  the  white  of  egg 
icing  for  cake.     Spread  on  the  cake,  slice  bananas  and 
press  into  the  frosting,  put  on  another  layer  of  cake,  and 
so  on  until  all  the  layers  are  on. 
Fruit  Filling  for  Layer  Cake. 

Cut  fine  equal  parts  of  figs  and  seeded  raisins.  Cook 
in  as  little  orange  juice  as  will  prevent  burning.  Flavor 
with  cinnamon,  mace,  and  preserved  ginger,  and  put  be- 
tween the  layers  of  cake. 


CAKE  MAKING.  439 

Cooked  Fillings  for  Layer  Cake. 

One  cup  milk,  one  egg,  yolk  and  white  beaten  separate- 
ly, two  tablespoonfuls  of  cornstarch,  one  and  one-half 
tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  a  dust  of  salt.  Flavor  to  taste. 
Mix  the  cornstarch  with  the  sugar  and  add  it  to  the  boil- 
ing milk,  cook  until  the  cornstarch  does  not  taste  raw, 
then  pour  it  over  the  well-beaten  yolk;  return  to  the  fire 
and  cook  one  minute,  pour  this  over  the  egg  white,  which 
has  been  beaten  as  for  a  meringue,  with  one-half  table- 
spoonful  of  sugar,  fold  the  two  together,  cool  slightly  and 
spread  on  the  cake. 
Frosting  for  Cakes. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  frostings  for  cakes.  The 
following  will  illustrate  the  principal  ones :  Boiled  frost- 
ing with  egg  and  without  egg;  white  of  egg  frosting; 
ornamental  frosting;  milk  frosting  (cooked);  caramel 
frosting;  cream  frosting  (uncooked)  ;  water  or  fruit- juice 
frosting;  gelatine  frosting.  The  first  three  are  most  de- 
sirable for  home  use. 
Boiled  Frosting  Without  Eggs. 

One-half  cup  sugar,  one- fourth  cup  of  water.  Boil  un- 
til it  will  form  a  soft  ball,  then  cool  until  the  finger  can 
touch  the  top  without  adhering,  flavor,  stir  until  proper 
consistency  for  spreading,  then  pour  on  cake.  If  it  hard- 
ens while  beating,  set  the  bowl  in  hot  water,  and  stir  until 
it  melts  again. 
Boiled  Frosting  With  Eggs. 

One  egg  white,  beaten  stiff,  one  cup  of  sugar,  and  half 
a  cup  of  water.  Boil  until  it  will  form  a  soft  ball  in  cold 
water,  then  pour  in  small  stream  on  beaten  egg  white, 
beating  all  the  time  until  proper  consistency  for  spreading. 
Chocolate  Frosting  No.  1. 

Boil  one  cup  of  sugar  with  one-half  cup  of  water  to  the 
hairing  stage,  remove  from  the  fire,  and  while  boiling  hot 
beat  into  it  one  and  one-half  squares  of  grated  chocolate, 
which  have  been  melted  in  a  bowl  set  over  the  teakettle 


440  «  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

while  the  syrup  was  cooking,  flavor  with  vanilla,  beat, 
and  when  thickened  so  that  it  will  not  run  off  the  cake 
pour  over  it.  If  stirred  too  long,  it  will  harden  too  quick- 
ly to  spread. 

Chocolate  Frosting  No.  2. 

Cook  and  add  chocolate  same  as  in  chocolate  frosting 
No.  i,  and  while  still  boiling  hot  pour  over  the  beaten 
white  of  one  egg  and  continue  beating  until  it  thickens  so 
it  will  not  run  off  the  cake,  then  turn  it  on  and  spread 
with  a  knife  heated  in  a  pitcher  of  boiling  water.  All 
things  must  be  ready,  as  this  hardens  quickly,  and,  unless 
knife  and  water  are  at  hand,  one  cannot  use  them  suc- 
cessfully. 

Caramel  Frosting,  or  Milk  Frosting. 

Glucose,  one  teaspoonful ;  brown  sugar,  one  cup ;  sweet 
milk,  one-fourth  cup ;  butter,  one  teaspoonful ;  vanilla  ex- 
tract, one-half  teaspoonful.  Boil  until  it  will  make  a  soft 
ball  in  cold  water.  Pour  into  a  bowl,  let  cool  a  little,  add 
flavoring,  beat  until  it  begins  to  thicken,  then  pour  over 
the  cake. 

Water  or  Fruit-Juice  Frosting. 

One-half  cup  of  powdered  sugar.  Moisten  with  hot 
fruit- juice  or  water  until  it  can  be  spread.  Flavor  with 
corresponding  extract  and  pour  on  the  cake. 

Cold  Cream  Frosting. 

Moisten  powdered  sugar  to  the  spreading  stage  with 
sweet  cream,  heat  over  water  until  it  melts,  then  spread  on 
cake. 

Milk  Frosting. 

Two  cups  of  granulated  sugar,  one  cup  of  sweet  milk. 
Boil  until  stringy,  then  beat  with  egg  beater  until  thick. 
Spread  over  top  of  cake.     Then  spread  over  this,  when 
cool  enough,  one-half  cake  of  chocolate,  melted. 
Milk  Frosting— For  Class  Work. 

One-half  cup  of  granulated  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of 
sweet  milk.  Put  over  the  fire  and  cook  until  stringy,  then 


CAKE  MAKING.  441 

beat  with  dover  beater  until  thick,  flavor  and  pour  on  the 
cake  immediately. 

White  of  Egg  Icing  for  Cake. 

One  measure  of  egg  to  four  measures  of  confectioners' 
sugar.  Put  in  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  be- 
fore beginning  to  beat;  as  mixed,  add  more,  and  so  con- 
tinue until  all  is  used.  Do  not  beat  much  before  all  is  in, 
then  beat  until,  when  you  let  it  stream  from  the  spoon,  it 
will  show  the  rings  for  a  short  time.  If  orange  colored 
frosting  is  desired,  use  the  yolk  of  the  egg  instead  of  the 
white.  This  is  a  very  desirable  frosting. 

Gum  Arabic  Icing. 

Soak  four  ounces  of  gum  arabic  in  one  cup  of  cold 
water.  When  dissolved,  strain  into  a  double  boiler,  and 
add  one-half  a  pound  of  confectioners'  sugar,  and  cook 
until  it  makes  a  firm  ball  in  cold  water.  Remove  from 
the  fire,  pour  the  liquid  over  the  stiffly-beaten  whites  of 
three  eggs,  and  beat  as  in  boiled  icing.  Before  frosting 
the  cake,  dust  the  edges  with  powdered  sugar  to  prevent 
the  icing  running  down  the  sides,  let  cool  somewhat  be- 
fore putting  on,  and  beat  all  the  time  it  is  cooling. 

To  Glace  Fruit. 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one  tablespoonful  of  white  wine 
vinegar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  water.  Put  together  and 
boil  to  the  cracking  stage.  Remove  from  the  fire,  dip 
cherries  or  some  other  fruit  with  an  unbroken  surface,  and 
suspend  by  a  string  to  drain.  Glaced  fruits  will  keep 
only  a  short  time. 

To  Glace  Nuts. 

Select  unbroken  kernels,  and  blanch  and  dry  them. 
Then  proceed  in  same  manner  as  with  fruit. 

References:  Buckeye  Cook  Book,  pp.  61,  84;  Parloa's 
Kitchen  Companion,  pp.  742-745;  Boston  Cook  Book — Lincoln 
— pp.  369-373;  Cakes  and  Cake  Decorations — King — Part  1. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

THE  DINING  ROOM. 

To  have  the  privilege  of  planning  and  building  a  house 
according  to  one's  own  ideas  of  convenience  and  pleasur- 
able living  is  very  desirable.  In  many  cases  this  cannot 
be  done,  but  much  can  be  gained  by  modifying  an  old 
house. 

A  china  closet  built  in  the  partition  between  dining 
room  and  kitchen  can  be  made  both  ornamental  and  con- 
venient. This  may  be  constructed  in  some  pleasing  de- 
sign, with  glass  doors  on  the  dining-room  side,  and  solid 
doors  on  the  kitchen  side.  Arrange  the  china  on  the 
shelves  so  that  the  pieces  in  daily  use  will  stand  on  that 
portion  of  the  shelves  lying  between  the  opposite  doors. 
The  dishes  can  thus  be  passed  through  from  the  dining 
room  to  the  kitchen  with  perfect  ease  when  necessary. 
Below  these  doors  have  shelves  or  drawers  opening  into 
both  kitchen  and  dining  room  for  the  purpose  of  storing 
clean  linen,  kitchen  towels,  etc.  Let  the  space  be  long 
enough  to  admit  of  a  rolled  table  cloth,  and  sufficiently 
spacious  to  allow  the  pieces  to  lie  without  crowding  or 
creasing. 

A  hardwood  floor  is  most  desirable  for  the  dining  room. 
A  dull  finish  is  preferable,  as  a  polished  floor  is  easily 
marred.  Rugs  and  carpets  should  be  avoided  here,  be- 
cause they  gather  dust,  and  are  also  inconvenient.  If 
something  is  desired  to  render  the  noise  less  apparent,  a 
piece  of  matting  a  little  larger  than  the  space  occupied 
by  the  chairs  may  be  used,  the  edges  being  well  bound. 
Such  a  floor  covering  is  light  and  easily  dusted,  but  is  not 
durable.  It  is  better  to  leave  the  floor  bare,  and  use 


444  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

rubber-shod  chairs.  The  rubber  prevents  noise,  and 
the  floor  is  not  marred.  In  the  dining  room,  simplicity 
is  both  attractive  and  desirable.  Here,  as  in  all  oth- 
er parts  of  the  house,  we  wish  to  give  an  individual 
air,  an  appearance  which  will  silently  say  to  all  who  en- 
ter, "cheerfulness  and  hospitality  reign  here."  The  dec- 
orations and  furnishings  should  tend  to  make  a  restful 
and  homelike  room.  All  things  suggesting  stiffness  and 
gloom  must  be  avoided.  Smooth  walls  are  more  sanitary 
and  more  easily  cleaned  than  those  presenting  a  rough 
exterior.  It  is  better  to  have  the  walls  a  neutral  tint  than 
to  leave  them  pure  white.  If  papered  walls  are  preferred, 
there  are  many  designs  from  which  to  choose,  but  in  or- 
der to  beautify  the  home  in  an  economical  way,  one  must 
gain  good  ideas  of  decorative  art  in  simple  things,  and 
thus  accomplish  a  pleasing  effect  with  a  moderate  ex- 
penditure of  money.  The  paper  must  be  such  as  to  retain 
the  effect  of  light  and  cheerfulness.  In  choosing  it,  the 
size,  height,  and  furnishings  of  the  room  must  be  taken 
into  consideration.  In  general,  the  walls  should  be  light- 
er than  the  woodwork,  but  this  is  not  an  invariable  rule. 
No  form  can  be  given  which  will  suit  all  conditions.  In 
order  to  successfully  decorate  any  portion  of  the  house, 
harmony  of  color  should  be  studied.  Good  taste  and 
good  judgment,  combined  with  a  knowledge  of  these 
things,  will  bring  about  the  desired  results. 

When  possible,  have  the  dining  room,  and,  indeed,  all 
the  living  rooms,  so  situated  that  they  will  have  plenty  of 
air  and  sunlight.  A  bright  and  sunny  dining  room  may 
employ  some  shade  of  green  in  its  decorations.  One 
which  is  gloomy  will  be  brightened  by  warm  yellows  and 
a  little  red,  judiciously  used.  Select  window  shades  of 
such  a  color  that  the  light  emitted  through  them  will  add 
to,  rather  than  detract  from,  the  general  effect  of  rest  and 
peace.  Window  curtains,  whether  expensive  or  inex- 
pensive, simple  or  elaborate,  are  most  sanitary  when  made 
of  wash  material. 


THE  DINING  ROOM.  445 

The  dining-room  furniture  should  be  simple  and  dura- 
ble. A  beautiful  dark  wood,  with  little  or  no  ornamenta- 
tion, is  usually  the  most  desirable  kind  of  material  to  use 
in  the  construction  of  dining-room  furniture.  Strong, 
well-made  chairs,  with  backs  of  medium  height,  having 
no  projecting  posts,  will  be  found  most  satisfactory, 
where  one  prefers  comfort  to  the  caprices  of  fashion.  A 
good  quality  of  leather  makes  a  very  satisfactory  cover- 
ing for  the  seats  of  dining-room  chairs.  Such  chairs  cost 
more  than  some  others  which  are  well  made,  but  they  will 
wear  a  long  time  without  looking  scuffed,  and  they  have 
a  substantial  appearance. 

Whether  the  table  be  round  or  square,  let  fashion  and 
individual  taste  decide.  A  square  table  gives  a  better 
opportunity  for  decoration,  but  in  some  other  ways  a 
round  or  oval  shape  is  more  desirable.  For  instance, 
when  one  wishes  to  seat  an  uneven  number  of  persons, 
the  round  or  oval  table  gives  a  more  pleasing  effect.  If 
one  wishes  room  for  more  elaborate  decorations  than  a 
common  table  affords,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  have  a 
rough  top  made/  which  can  be  set  over  the  table  when 
needed.  In  any  case,  the  table  should  be  well  made,  and 
stand  firm,  and  have  the  legs  so  arranged  as  to  be  as  little 
in  the  way  as  possible. 

The  sideboard  should  be  chosen  of  a  style  and  quality 
to  harmonize  with  the  rest  of  the  furniture  in  the  room, 
and  its  size  must  be  proportioned  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  floor  space. 

The  few  pictures  which  decorate  the  walls  of  the  dining 
room  should  be  such  as  will  please  the  eye,  and  exert  a 
quieting  effect  upon  the  nerves. 

Some  nice,  thrifty  plants  in  a  sunny  window  also 
heighten  the  pleasure  of  those  who  surround  the  festive 
board. 

In  table  linens,  we  find  several  qualities  and  many  dif- 
ferent designs.  The  cheaper  quality  of  table  covering  is 
that  woven  on  an  ordinary  loom,  and  is  often  called 


446  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

simply  "table  linen."  The  more  expensive  linens  appear 
in  many  different  designs,  and  are  termed  "damasks." 
Table  linen  can  be  had  unbleached  or  half  bleached, 
and  comes  in  simple  designs.  It  is  inexpensive,  durable, 
washes  well,  and  can  wisely  be  used  for  common  hard 
wear,  if  damask  is  deemed  too  expensive.  A  cheap 
quality  of  damask  can  be  had  at  about  the  same  price  as  a 
good  table  linen,  but  does  not  wear  nor  launder  so  satis- 
factorily. 

Where  the  air  is  free  from  smoke  and  dust,  and  where 
there  is  plenty  of  green  grass  and  sunshine,  as  in  the 
country,  it  is  better  to  buy  the  half -bleached  linen, 
and  do  the  bleaching  at  home.  One  can  thus  get  a  better 
quality  of  linen  for  the  same  money,  and  it  is  little  trouble 
to  bleach  it.  Home-bleached  linen  looks  as  well  as  that 
done  at  the  factory,  and  it  can  be  bleached  as  used,  if  de- 
sired. It  is  not  wise  to  use  an  artificial  bleach,  as  extreme 
care  is  necessary  in  the  use  of  such  materials  to  avoid  in- 
juring fabrics. 

One  finds,  on  the  linen  counters,  damask  of  Scotch, 
Irish,  German,  and  French  manufacture,  and  some  from 
American  looms.  You  can  usually  buy  unbleached  dam- 
ask of  good  quality  in  medium  width  for  seventy-five 
cents  a  yard.  For  fine  brands  of  Irish  manufacture,  you 
must  pay  four  or  five  dollars  a  yard.  Damask  of  each 
manufacture  has  its  distinguishing  characteristics,  but 
they  are  not  all  sufficiently  marked  to  be  apparent  to  the 
inexperienced  buyer. 

To  obtain  linen  of  good  wearing  quality,  choose  that 
which  is  pliable  and  yielding,  having  no  sizing.  Such 
cloth  will  wear  much  better  than  that  which  is  stiff, 
starchy  and  glossy. 

Avoid  a  mixture  of  cotton  and  linen.  All  cotton  or 
all  linen  is  better  than  a  mixture  of  the  two.  It  is  not 
wise  to  buy  linen  for  fineness  especially.  Such  cloths  are 
less  durable  than  those  which  are  a  little  coarser,  and 


THE  DINING  ROOM.  447 

after  having  worn  each  awhile,  the  difference  in  appear- 
ance does  not  warrant  the  difference  in  price. 

Avoid  a  damask  in  which  the  border  is  separated  from 
the  main  part  of  the  cloth  by  a  straight  band  of  different 
weave,  as  this  is  very  apt  to  draw  (especially  if  laundred 
in  the  steam  laundry),  and  injure  the  appearance  of  the 
cloth.  Cross  barred  cloths  are  subject  to  the  same  criti- 
cism. 

Never  buy  fringed  cloths  or  towels.  They  soon  lose 
bits  of  fringe  here  and  there,  even  when  properly  laun- 
dered, and  if  they  come  from  the  laundry  with  the  fringe 
hanging  in  matted  strings,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  are 
unsightly  from  the  first. 

A  pattern  cloth  is  prettier  than  one  bought  by  the  yard, 
but  the  patterns  always  cost  more.  Detached  figures  in 
the  designs  are  always  prettier  than  the  all-over  patterns, 
in  which  there  is  little  space  between  the  different  portions 
of  the  pattern.  Select  the  prettiest  pattern  there  is  in  the 
lot  you  have  to  choose  from,  for  they  are  all  the  same  price, 
and  a  pleasing  design  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the 
cloth.  One  finds  greater  variety  of  designs  in  linens  of 
Irish,  Scotch,  and  French  manufacture  than  in  German 
goods.  They  are  also  by  many  considered  more  elegant, 
but  a  heavy  German  damask  gives  excellent  satisfaction  in 
durability,  and  is  found  in  many  pretty  designs.  Avoid  a 
design  which  has  an  open,  lace-like  effect,  as  the  open 
work  will  cause  the  cloth  to  last  a  much  shorter  time. 

The  way  in  which  linen  is  made  and  cared  for  has  much 
to  do  with  its  appearance  and  durability.  Fashion  dic- 
tates that,  in  figured  damasks,  both  table  cloth  and  nap- 
kins should  be  finished  with  a  very  narrow  rolled  French 
hem.  By  those  who  have  time  and  skill  to  hemstitch  and 
ornament  their  linens,  beautiful  plain  damasks  and  round 
thread  table  linen  may  be  procured.  All  linens  should  be 
hemmed  by  hand.  In  laundering  linens,  avoid  rubbing 
them  on  the  board,  and  use  no  starch  in  them,  if  they  have 
good  body,  and  in  any  case  not  enough  to  show  at  all  as 
starchv  stiffness. 


448  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

The  silence  cloth  used  under  the  linen  adds  to  the 
length  of  time  it  can  be  used  without  looking  soiled,  and 
also  renders  the  cloth  more  durable,  by  relieving  it  of 
friction  from  the  edges  of  the  table.  It  also  gives  a 
light-weight  cloth  an  appearance  of  having  more  body. 

The  pattern  damasks  and  all  of  the  better  piece  linens 
have  napkins  to  match.  One  has  a  choice  in  size  between 
those  called  five-eighths  of  a  yard  square,  three-fourths  of 
a  yard  square,  and  seven-eighths  of  a  yard  square.  In 
most  manufactures,  they  are  liable  to  vary  a  few  inches 
from  the  given  size. 

The  best  time  to  buy  linen  is  during  the  month  of 
January.  The  holiday  rest  is  then  over,  and  the  mer- 
chants, anxious  to  begin  the  new  year  auspiciously,  have 
their  supplies  of  new  linens  ready  for  the  counters  at  this 
time.  One  has  wider  range  of  choice  in  both  quality  and 
design  now  than  later,  when  the  most  choice  pieces  have 
been  culled  out.  Odd  lots,  shopworn  pieces,  and  rem- 
nants are  also  brought  forward  at  this  time.  New  de- 
signs are  usually  not  more  costly  than  those  of  the  year 
before.  Little  is  gained  by  buying  a  certain  pattern,  in 
the  belief  that  it  can  be  duplicated  in  time,  for  the  pat- 
terns do  not  usually  run  very  long. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

SETTING  TABLE  AND  SERVING  MEALS. 

The  dining-room  table  should  occupy  that  position 
which  will  make  the  guests  most  comfortable,  and  give 
the  most  pleasing  outlook.  Let  the  chair  to  be  occupied 
by  the  host  be  at  the  end  of  the  table  farthest  from  the 
door.  The  size  of  the  table  must  always  be  adjusted  to 
the  number  of  guests.  The  top  of  the  table  must  be  kept 
polished  and  unmarred.  Good  form  requires  that  the 
table  be  always  uncovered  when  not  in  use. 

The  details  of  setting  the  table  and  serving  meals  vary 
with  the  conditions,  the  times,  and  the  taste  of  the 
hostess,  the  same  as  all  things  are  swayed  by  fashion  and 
necessity.  There  are  some  rules  for  setting  the  table 
which  never  change  materially,  and  there  is  a  medium  in 
serving  meals,  as  well  as  in  other  things,  which  is  never 
conspicuous,  not  overdone,  nor  trying,  because  the  guests 
are  not  made  uncomfortable. 

Whether  a  beautiful  and  highly  polished  table  shall  be 
used  with  mats  and  doilies,  or  whether  a  plain  table  cov- 
ered with  a  handsome,  snow-white  damask  is  more  de- 
sirable, the  hostess  and  the  fashion  at  the  time  must  de- 
cide. If  the  bare  table  is  used,  it  must  be  protected  in 
some  way.  Mats  for  hot  dishes  are  often  objectionable, 
because  they  do  not  combine  beauty  and  utility.  Hand- 
painted  trays,  with  some  device  to  prevent  sliding,  answer 
all  conditions,  but  are  very  expensive.  If  the  table  is  to 
be  covered,  it  must  be, made  the  proper  size  to  accommo- 
date the  number  of  people  to  be  seated,  then  covered  with 
a  felt,  and  the  cloth  placed  straight  and  smoothly  over  all. 

References:  Boston  Cook  Book— Lincoln— pp.  439-443;  The 
Expert  Waitress— Springsteed. 

is 


450 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


General  Rules. 

At  each  meal,  see  that  such  articles  as  the  host  may  need 
are  on  a  side  table  near  that  end  of  the  room,  and  what 
the  hostess  needs  are  on  a  table  near  her.  Oyster  plates, 
salad  plates,  and  dishes  for  ices  should  be  cold,  and  soup 
dishes  and  meat  and  vegetable  platters  warm.  Coffee  and 
tea  should  be  kept  hot  without  deteriorating.  In  begin- 
ning the  meal,  first  serve  the  lady  on  the  right  of  the  host, 
then  pass  in  regular  order.  When  removing  a  course, 
take  the  food  first. 


Table  Laid  for  Breakfast. 
BREAKFAST. 

Oranges. 

Rolled  wheat  with  cream. 

Plain  omelet.  Creamed  potatoes 

Bread.          Hot  rolls.          Butter. 

Coffee.      Cream.      Sugar. 

The  fruit  plates  should  be  put  at  equal  distances  apart, 
and  exactly  opposite  each  other  on  the  sides  and  ends  of 
the  table.  There  should  be  a  fruit  doily  on  each  plate, 
and  a  finger  bowl  about  one-third  full  of  water  at  the 
right-hand  side  of  the  plate.  Put  at  each  plate  a  breakfast 
knife  and  a  iruit  knife,  with  the  blade  of  each  turned  to- 


SETTING   TABLE,   ETC. 


451 


ward  the  plate, — the  one  to  be  used  first  on  the  outside. 
On  the  left  hand,  place  a  breakfast  fork,  prongs  up,  the 
orange  spoon,  and  the  spoon  for  the  cereal,  with  the  bowls 
up.  If  a  bread  and  butter  plate  is  to  be  used  for  the  hot 
rolls,  place  it  at  the  left  of  the  plate,  and  lay  the  butter 
knife  across  the  right  side.  At  the  right  of  the  plate 
place  a  glass  of  milk  or  water.  At  the  head  of  the  table 
place  a  stand  for  the  coffee  pot ;  put  cups,  saucers,  sugar 
bowl,  and  the  teaspoons  and  sugar  tongs  near  it.  Put 
napkins  at  the  left  of  the  plates.  Fill  the  glasses  with 
water  about  two  minutes  before  the  people  are  seated. 


Placing  a  Dish. 

Cut  the  bread  just  before  this,  and  keep  the  butter  cold 
and  the  rolls  hot  until  needed. 

As  soon  as  the  guests  are  seated,  pass  the  oranges,  of- 
fering them  at  the  left  of  each  person. 

Serve  the  lady  of  the  house,  unless  there  are  old  peo- 
ple or  guests  present,  in  which  case  serve  them  before  the 
others. 

When  the  fruit  is  finished,  remove  first  the  fruit  dish, 
then  quickly  and  quietly  take  away  to  the  pantry  all  be- 
longing to  that  course.  Step  to  the  right  of  each  person, 


452 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


and  place  the  finger  bowl  and  doily,  with  silver  intended 
for  the  oranges,  whether  used  or  not,  on  the  plate,  and 
remove.  Bring  in  the  dish  of  rolled  wheat,  covered,  on 
a  tray,  with  a  spoon  beside  it.  Place  a  cereal  bowl  on  a 
plate  before  each  guest.  Remove  the  cover  from  the  dish 
to  the  side  table,  put  a  spoon  in  the  cereal,  and  offer  it 
by  passing  it  on  a  small  tray  at  the  left  of  each  person. 
Offer  the  sugar  and  cream  also  at  the  left.  When  the 
cereal  is  finished,  remove  this  course  same  as  the  one  be- 
fore, taking  food  first. 

Have  the  bread,  butter,  and  hot  rolls  at  hand  on  the 


Passing  a  Dish. 

side  table,  ready  to  set  on  the  table  the  instant  the  other 
is  removed.  These  can  be  brought  as  the  other  things  are 
taken  out.  Place  the  omelet  on  a  warm  platter  at  the 
foot  of  the  table.  Put  a  tablespoon  at  the  right,  and  a 
fork  at  the  left.  Place  the  dish  of  potatoes  conveniently 
at  the  right.  Bring  a  pile  of  warm  plates,  and  place  at 
the  left.  As  the  plates  are  filled,  give  one  to  each  guest, 
placing  it  from  the  right.  Pass  the  rolls  and  bread. 
Place  the  butter  as  it  is  dished  by  some  member  of  the 


SETTING   TABLE,  ETC.  453 

family.  Bring  a  pitcher  of  boiling  water,  and  a  bowl  for 
the  use  of  the  lady  of  the  house  as  she  pours  the  coffee. 
As  each  cup  of  coffee  is  poured,  place  it  where  it  belongs. 
Each  one  is  prepared  to  suit  the  individual  taste.  If  milk 
be  used  in  coffee,  instead  of  cream,  it  is  much  better  to 
have  it  hot.  Watch  during  the  entire  meal  for  anything 
that  may  be  needed,  and  fill  the  glasses  when  empty.  Let 
no  one  be  under  the  necessity  of  asking  for  anything  dur- 
ing the  meal. 

The  Side  Board, 

Whether  the  sideboard  is  covered  or  bare  depends  on 
the  table.  If  it  is  covered,  let  the  sideboard  be  covered 
also.  On  the  sideboard  should  be  placed  the  water  pitcher, 
sugar  bowl  for  cereal,  extra  plates,  spoons,  knives,  etc., 
that  may  be  needed. 

Luncheon. 

Luncheon  means  primarily  a  light  repast  taken  be- 
tween breakfast  and  dinner.  This  repast  can  be  made 
very  simple,  and  it  may  be  made  almost  as  elaborate  as  a 
dinner.  There  are  two  reasons  for  serving  a  luncheon. 
The  first  and  chief  reason  is  to  supply  the  body  with  some 
nutrients  during  the  time  of  brain  activity,  when  the 
children  are  busy  with  their  school  work,  and  adults  of  the 
family  begrudge  the  time  necessary  to  eat  a  full  meal.  It 
seems  easier  to  use  up  the  odds  and  ends  at  this  time,  be- 
cause in  the  morning  the  appetite  is  not  good,  and  the 
evening  is  the  only  time  that  the  family  can  all  be  together. 

There  is  much  discussion  as  to  whether  it  is  better  to 
take  the  heaviest  meal  of  the  day  at  noon  or  in  the  even- 
ing. When  the  family  is  exercising  freely,  it  would  seem 
better  to  take  the  heavy  meal  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and 
if  they  do  not  exercise  freely  at  any  time,  why  do  they 
need  heavy  meals. 

Cream  soups  and  purees,  with  plenty  of  good  bread, 
butter,  and  milk,  form  the  substantial  part  of  a  simple 
every-day  luncheon.  To  these  may  be  added  any  dainty 


454 


HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 


and  tasty  dishes  which  can  be  manufactured  from  the 
odds  and  ends  found  in  the  pantry. 

SIMPLE  FAMILY  LUNCHEON. 

Puree  of  green  peas 

Bread      Butter. 

Chicken  croquettes  Baked  potatoes 

Sliced  tomatoes          Salted  wafers 

Apple  pie  and  cheese 

Milk  and  chocolate. 


Table  Laid  for  Luncheon. 

If  the  table  is  to  be  covered,  have  it  the  proper  size, 
and  the  silence  cloth  and  luncheon  cloth  straight  and 
smooth,  as  before.  In  the  center  of  the  table  place 
flowers,  fruit,  or  something  of  the  kind,  tastefully  ar- 
ranged. At  the  foot  of  the  table,  place  a  mat  for  the 
platter  holding  the  croquettes,  and  lay  a  spoon  at  the 
right  and  a  fork  at  the  left  of  the  dish.  At  the  head  of  the 
table  place  a  stand  for  the  cocoa  pitcher,  and  beside  it 
place  the  sugar  bowl,  spoons,  teacups,  etc.  A  stand  for  a 


SETTING   TABLE,  ETC.  455 

cocoa  or  coffee  pot  should  correspond  with  the  pot,  to 
be  as  inconspicuous  as  possible. 

Use  individual  salts,  or  place  salt  and  pepper  for  each 
two  persons. 

Place  a  luncheon  plate  for  each  person,  observing  the 
same  exactness  as  is  always  necessary  in  setting  the  table. 
At  the  right  of  each  plate  place  a  luncheon  knife,  a  knife 
for  butter  (if  a  separate  knife  is  used),  a  soup  spoon,  and 
a  water  glass,  observing  the  same  rules  as  before.  At  the 
left  lay  the  luncheon  fork,  a  salad  fork,  a  napkin  with  the 
bread  sticks  or  toast  fingers  for  the  soup,  and  the  bread 
and  butter  plate,  if  used.  Place  the  dessert  plates  and 
forks  on  the  sideboard.  See  that  the  soup  dishes  are  hot. 
Ascertain  whether  there  will  be  any  delay.  Fill  the  water 
glasses,  and  announce  the  meal. 

As  soon  as  the  guests  are  all  seated,  if  the  soup  is  to  be 
served  from  the  butler's  pantry,  the  waiter  brings  a  dish 
of  hot  soup  on  a  small  silver  tray,  passes  to  the  right 
side  of  the  guest  at  the  host's  right  hand,  and  places  the 
soup  dish  quietly  on  the  plate. 

If  the  soup  is  to  be  served  at  the  table,  bring  the  soup 
tureen  on  the  tray,  and  place  it  in  front  of  the  hostess. 
Remove  the  cover,  and  put  it  on  the  side  table.  Lay  the 
soup  ladle  beside  the  tureen  at  the  right,  and  place  the 
warm  soup  plates  conveniently  at  the  left. 

The  waiter  should  stand  at  the  left  of  the  hostess,  and 
as  soon  as  a  dish  of  soup  is  served,  take  it  up  with  the 
right  hand,  pass  and  place  it  as  before. 

To  remove  the  soup  course,  place  the  tureen  on  the 
tray,  lay  the  ladle  beside  it,  and  carry  out.  To  remove  the 
plates,  put  the  spoon  in  the  dish,  and  take  the  luncheon 
plate  with  the  soup  dish.  Carry  one  in  each  hand,  and 
remove  quietly.  Always  place  and  take  at  the  right,  but 
when  passing  a  dish,  offer  it  at  the  left. 

The  potatoes  may  be  brought  and  placed  covered  on  the 
side  table,  and  passed  by  the  waiter  after  the  croquettes, 
or  put  on  the  plate  with  them.  Bring  in  the  croquettes 


456  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and  potatoes,  and  place  the  dishes  on  mats.  Place  a 
spoon  beside  the  potato  dish.  Put  a  pile  of  warm  plates  at 
the  left  of  the  platter.  As  soon  as  a  plate  is  served  with 
croquettes  and  potatoes,  pass  and  place  in  front  of  the 
lady  of  the  house,  unless  there  are  guests  who  should  be 
first  served.  Wait  upon  each  person  at  the  table  in  the 
same  way. 

Pass  the  bread,  and  place  the  butter  as  it  is  served  by 
a  member  of  the  family.  The  tomatoes  have  been  previ- 
ously served  cold  on  salad  plates,  and  set  in  a  convenient 
and  cool  place.  Set  a  plate  before  each  person,  and  pass 
the  vinegar  or  other  dressing  which  is  to  be  used  with  the 
tomatoes. 

Pass  the  salted  wafers. 

To  remove  the  course,  place  the  serving  fork  and  spoon 
on  the  platter,  place  the  platter  and  fork  rest  on  the  tray,, 
and  carry  away.  Return  for  the  potato  dish  and  the 
bread.  Remove  the  soiled  dishes  one  in  each  hand,  as  be- 
fore. Remove  the  butter,  salt,  and  pepper,  and  any  silver 
that  has  not  been  used.  Remove  crumbs  from  the  pol- 
ished table  with  fringed  napkin  and  crumb  tray.  From  the 
tablecloth  take  crumbs  with  silver  crumb  knife  and  tray. 
Place  the  pie  before  the  hostess,  and  on  the  right  put  a 
silver  knife,  and  on  the  left  a  pie  fork.  Place  a  pile  of 
dessert  plates  conveniently  at  her  left.  As  soon  as  a 
plate  is  ready,  place  a  fork  on  it  and  pass  to  the  right 
of  the  guest,  and  set  it  down.  Serve  each  person  the 
same  way,  and  pass  the  cheese.  If  a  cup  or  glass  needs 
replenishing,  attend  to  it  at  once,  at  any  time  during  the 
meal. 

Dinner. 

A  dinner  is  more  elegant  if  a  handsome  and  expensive 
plate  is  at  each  place  when  the  table  is  set.  These  are  re- 
moved by  the  waitress  as  she  places  the  dishes  of  the  first 
course. 

Whether  a  carving  cloth  is  used  depends  upon  whether 
the  carving  is  done  at  the  table.  Sometimes  fashion  de- 


SETTING  TABLE,  ETC.  457 

crees  that  if  a  man  is  not  a  good  carver,  it  is  perfectly 
good  form  to  have  the  roast  brought  to  the  table  carved, 
and  held  in  place  by  decorations  of  a  suitable  kind. 

MENU  FOR  DINNER. 
Raw  oysters 
Amber  soup 

Celery  Salted  almonds 

Baked  shad —  Sauce  Allemand 

Fillet  of  beef —  Mushroom  sauce 

Mashed  potatoes  Browned  sweet  potatoes 

Rice  croquettes 

Tomato  salad 

Salted  wafers  Edam  cheese 

Queen  of  Pudding 

Coffee. 


Table  Laid  for  Dinner. 

The  tablecloth  should  be  heavy  and  handsome,  with 
large,  square  napkins  to  match.  The  same  care  must  be 
exercised  as  before  to  have  the  size  of  the  table  suit  the 
number  of  guests,  and  the  cloth  and  the  silence  cloth  per- 
fectly straight  and  smooth.  Place  a  center  piece  of  flow- 
ers in  the  middle  of  the  table.  Let  this  be  of  medium 
size  and  height.  Candles  and  mirrors  are  sometimes  used. 
Candlesticks  are  placed  in  a  square  a  short  distance  from 


458  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

the  flowers.  Candelabra  are  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
flowers.  The  decorations  may  set  on  an  embroidered 
piece,  or  on  one  of  lace-work,  or  of  silk  or  satin,  if  pre- 
ferred. 

It  is  very  generally  customary  to  have  olives  and  salted 
almonds  on  the  table  when  the  guests  are  seated.  These 
are  served  in  small,  beautiful,  oval-shaped  dishes,  placed  at 
intervals  along  the  table,  and  the  guests  help  themselves 
to  them  between  the  courses. 

Celery  is  used  in  the  same  way,  but  served  on  a  low, 
long  dish  made  for  the  purpose.  It  is  customary  at  the 
present  time  to  further  decorate  the  table  by  placing  at 
each  end  a  high  dish  of  beautiful  fruit,  artistically  ar- 
ranged. Each  of  these  dishes  is  accompanied  by  two 
low  dishes,  containing  small  cakes,  bonbons,  etc.  When 
these  are  used  for  the  decorations,  they  always  form  a 
portion  of  the  dessert.  The  cakes  are  passed  with  the 
ices,  and  the  fruit  is  served  afterwards. 

The  dinner  plates  should  be  the  handsomest  the  house 
affords,  and  be  put  on  with  the  same  exactness  directed 
for  breakfast  and  luncheon.  At  the  right  of  and  next  to 
each  plate,  place  a  knife  for  the  roast,  next  to  this  a  soup 
spoon.  Next  the  plate  on  the  left,  place  a  dinner  fork, 
then  the  fish  fork,  and  on  the  outside  an  oyster  fork. 
Place  the  napkin  at  the  left  of  the  plate,  with  a  dinner 
roll  folded  in  it.  At  the  right,  place  the  water  glass, — 
a  goblet  is  at  present  most  desirable. 

The  oysters  must  be  free  from  shells,  perfectly 
cold,  and  served  on  cold  plates.  It  is  best  to  have 
shaved  ice  among  them.  As  soon  as  the  guests  are  seated, 
serve  the  oysters,  with  a  lemon  point  on  the  edge  of 
each  plate.  The  dinner  plate  must  be  removed  from 
the  left  with  the  left  hand,  and  the  oysters  placed 
from  the  right  with  the  right  hand.  If  time  and  space 
are  of  any  consequence,  it  is  better  to  leave  the  hand- 
some plate  off,'  and  simply  place  the  oysters  from  the 
right.  Remove  the  course  as  directed  before. 


SETTING   TABLE,  ETC.  459 

Place  the  soup  tureen  and  some  warm  soup  plates  be- 
fore the  hostess.  Lay  the  soup  ladle  conveniently  at  the 
right.  When  a  portion  of  the  soup  is  served,  the  waiter, 
who  stands  at  the  left  of  the  hostess,  should  take  it  in  the 
right  hand  and  place  it  on  the  tray,  step  to  the  person 
sitting  at  the  right  of  the  host,  and  place  it  quietly  on 
the  plate  before  the  guest.  Serve  the  others  in  regular 
order. 

To  remove  the  course,  first  take  the  soup  tureen  on  the 
tray,  then  remove  the  soup  plates,  one  in  each  hand. 
Carry  the  platter  of  fish,  the  fish  slicer,  and  the  fish  fork  in 
on  the  tray.  Place  the  platter  before  the  host,  and  lay 
the  fish  slicer  at  the  right  of  the  platter,  and  the  fish  fork 
at  the  left  of  it.  Bring  the  warm  fish  plates  in,  and  place 
them  where  they  can  be  conveniently  taken  with  the  left 
hand.  When  a  plate  of  fish  is  served,  take  it  with  the 
right  hand,  and,  standing  at  the  right  of  the  guest  of 
honor,  put  it  down,  first  removing  the  handsome  plate,  if 
one  is  used.  Serve  all  in  the  same,  way,  then  place  the 
sauce  boat  on  the  tray,  and  offer  at  the  left  of  each  per- 
son. The  host  might  serve  this  on  the  plate  with  the  fish, 
except  that  some  prefer  fish  without  sauce.  To  remove 
the  fish  course,  place  the  platter  on  the  tray  with  the  fish 
slicer  and  fish  fork  beside  it,  and  carry  away.  After- 
wards take  the  soiled  plates,  one  in  each  hand.  If  the 
celery  and  almonds  have  not  been  served  by  those  at  the 
table,  offer  first  the  celery  and  then  the  almonds.  Place 
the  roast  before  the  host,  and  lay  the  carving  knife  and 
gravy  spoon  at  the  right  and  the  carving  fork  at  the  left 
of  the  platter.  Place  the  warm  plates  in  the  same  posi- 
tion as  for  fish.  Bring  in  the  sweet  potatoes  and  the 
white  potatoes,  remove  the  covers,  and  let  the  host  serve 
a  portion  of  each  vegetable  with  the  meat. 

When  a  plate  is  ready,  serve  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
fish,  and  pass  the  sauce  for  the  same  reason  as  before. 
The  potatoes  of  both  kinds  might  be  set  on  the  side  table, 
and  passed  by  the  waiter  after  he  has  served  the  meat, 


460  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and  returned  to  the  side  table,  but  it  is  just  as  good  form 
to  serve  them  on  the  plates,  and  lessen  the  time  and  serv- 
ice needed  for  the  meal. 

If  birds  are  served,  they  are  brought  in  immediately 
after  the  meat  course  is  removed.  The  salad  course 
comes  next,  and  fashion  at  the  present  time,  dictates  that 
the  salad  shall  be  served  by  the  waiter.  Whether  it  is 
served  by  the  waiter  or  a  member  of  the  family  it  is 
brought  in  on  a  tray  in  a  handsome  salad  bowl.  A  salad 
fork  and  spoon  are  in  the  bowl.  The  waiter  places  a 
salad  fork  quietly  at  each  place.  If  a  member  of  the 
family  is  to  serve  the  salad,  place  the  bowl  of  salad  be- 
fore the  host,  and  place  cold  salad  plates  at  the  left,  con- 
venient for  serving.  The  waiter  stands  at  the  left  of  the 
host,  and  carries  the  plates  the  same  as  in  the  other 
courses. 

After  the  salad,  remove  everything  except  the  decora- 
tions and  water  glasses  and  the  fruit  and  cakes,  if  they 
have  been  used  on  the  table,  as  they,  of  ten  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  If  there  is  a  carving  cloth,  turn  the  corners  to- 
gether, and  lift  it  quickly  to  the  tray  and  carry  out.  Re- 
move the  crumbs.  The  waiter  then  brings  the  dessert,  one 
plate  at  a  time  on  a  small  silver  tray,  and  places  before 
the  guests. 

If  the  pudding  is  to  be  served  by  one  of  the  family,  it 
is  brought  in  and  placed  in  front  of  the  hostess,  with 
the  pudding  slicer  at  the  right  of  the  pudding  dish,  and 
the  spoon  at  the  left.  The  waiter  serves  each  person  as 
the  hostess  makes  the  plates  ready.  This  course  is  re- 
moved the  same  as  the  others,  and  the  coffee  is  served.  If 
fruit  is  used  after  an  ice,  it  and  the  coffee  are  on  the  table 
at  the  same  time. 

At  fashionable  dinners  at  the  present  time,  black  coffee 
is  used,  and  is  poured  by  the  waiter  from  a  silver  coffee 
pot.  Cream  is  never  used  with  it,  but  sugar  may  be  used. 
If  it  is  desirable  to  have  this  office  performed  by  a 


SETTING   TABLE,   ETC.  461 

member  of  the  family,  a  coffee  tray  and  the  coffee  or 
chocolate  pot  would  be  placed  before  the  hostess. 

In  an  ideal  dinner  party,  each  guest  is  perfectly  com- 
fortable and  happy  during-  the  entire  time  spent  under  the 
hostess'  roof.  Happy  is  the  hostess  who  understands  suf- 
ficiently the  personal  relations  of  her  friends  to  invite  only 
those  who  are  congenial.  Fortunate  is  she  if  she  can  cast 
all  care  aside,  and  without  any  apparent  effort  infuse  the 
spirit  of  good  cheer  into  each  of  her  guests.  It  is 
not  only  the  good  pleasure  of  the  hostess  to  do  these 
things,  but  it  is  her  duty,  as  well.  She  meets  her  guests  in 
the  drawing  room,  and  tactfully  and  skillfully  aids  them 
in  forming  pleasant  little  groups,  and  keeps  them  chat- 
ting merrily  until  all  have  arrived.  Then  the  party  enters 
the  dining  room. 

The  host  leads  the  way,  taking  the  most  honored  lady. 
She  may  be  the  oldest  lady,  or  the  one  in  whose  honor 
the  dinner  is  given.  The  other  guests  enter  in  any  order 
they  please.  The  hostess  leaves  the  drawing  room  last, 
with  the  most  honored  gentleman. 

At  the  table,  the  hostess  must  be  gracious  and  happy, 
and  perfectly  at  ease,  seemingly  unconscious  of  all  that 
passes,  yet  deftly  managing  to  have  the  serving  well  done, 
and  keep  the  guests  all  engaged  in  bright  and  cheerful 
conversation.  When  the  hostess  sees  that  all  are  ready, 
she  lays  her  napkin  on  the  table,  and  the  host  rises  and 
leads  the  way  to  the  drawing  room. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 
EXTRA  WORK  FOR  EACH  DAY  IN  THE  WEEK. 

The  following  conditions  are  supposed  to  exist :  The 
family  consists  of  four  or  five  people,  and  but  one  maid 
is  kept.  The  ladies  of  the  family  do  the  work  necessarily 
done  daily  in  the  front  part  of  the  house,  put  rooms  to 
air,  make  beds,  and  dust  the  bedrooms.  When  the  weekly 
cleaning  is  done,  they  dust  the  bedrooms,  dust  the  bric-a- 
brac  in  the  parlors,  remove  all  such  things,  and  return 
them  to  their  places. 

MONDAY. 

It  is  best  to  have  the  washing  done  on  Monday.  This 
is  not  always  an  easy  matter.  No  article  of  soiled  clothing 
should  be  thrown  into  the  closet,  even  for  a  short  time, 
but  when  discarded  should  be  placed  where  it  can  be  car- 
ried to  the  laundry  and  put  in  the  hamper.  By  this  means 
it  becomes  possible  for  the  maid  to  rise  early,  sort  the 
clothes,  and  begin  the  washing,  and  thus  the  clothes  will 
have  ample  time  for  drying  while  the  sun  is  bright  and 
the  air  comparatively  free  from  dust  and  smoke. 

The  results  are  most  satisfactory  when  the  clothes  are 
taken  from  the  line  at  the  time  that  there  is  just  moisture 
enough  remaining  in  them  to  render  the  smoothing  pro- 
cess perfect.  It  is  not  wise  to  do  this  when  one  woman  is 
laundering  the  clothes,  in  addition  to  attending  to  kitchen 
and  dining  room  work,  because  the  two  exercises  per- 
formed on  the  same  day  tax  the  strength  too  severely.  The 
laundry  should  be  kept  clean,  and  be  put  in  order  after 
the  washing  is  finished.  Monday  evening,  dampen  the 
clothes,  and  fold  them  for  ironing. 


EXTRA  WORK.  463 

TUESDAY. 

On  Tuesday  morning  set  the  bread  as  soon  as  the  morn- 
ing work  is  done,  have  the  irons  hot,  and  do  the  ironing. 
If  the  bread  is  made  by  the  quick  process,  and  that  is  by 
far  the  best  method,  you  have  some  nice  loaves  of  bread 
within  five  hours  after  putting  the  yeast  and  flour  to- 
gether, and  thus  have  bread  baked  and  a  portion  of  the 
ironing  done  in  the  forenoon.  In  the  afternoon,  the  but- 
tons may  be  sewed  on,  and  the  rents  mended  by  the  mis- 
tress while  the  maid  finishes  the  ironing.  It  is  always 
unwise  to  leave  any  rents  until  after  the  clothing  is 
washed,  if  possible  to  avoid  it.  Endeavor  to  have  the 
clothes  perfectly  dry  by  evening,  that  they  may  be  put 
away  in  their  places. 

WEDNESDAY. 

On  Wednesday  do  the  extra  baking  necessary  for  the 
family,  and  clean  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  closets, 
and  the  kitchen  and  dining-room  floors.  The  kitchen 
closets,  and  in  fact  all  closets,  should  have  floors  of  closely 
joined  wood,  and  smooth,  hard  walls,  either  ceiled  or 
plastered.  The  shelves  should  be  smooth,  and  painted  or 
oiled,  that  nothing  spilled  may  find  lodgment  in  any  crack 
or  crevice,  or  any  substance  be  absorbed  by  them. 

The  floor  is  best  left  bare,  as  it  thus  harbors  no  insects 
and  dirt.  The  store  closet  should  have  a  small  window, 
with  a  solid,  close-fitting  blind  and  a  screen,  that  it  may 
be  opened  to  give  light  and  means  of  ventilation  when  nec- 
essary, and  be  closed  to  darken  the  room  when  desired. 
This  closet  should  have  many  tin  pails  with  covers  for 
storing  moderate  quantities  of  such  things  as  insects  and 
mice  attack  so  constantly.  Such  receptacles  in  a  poor 
quality  of  tin  would  last  long  in  a  dry  place,  and  can  be 
had  for  a  moderate  sum.  If  the  shelves  are  not  ex- 
tremely dirty,  warm  water  and  a  clean  cloth  and  sapolio, 
vigorously  applied,  will  clean  them.  Open  the  window 
and  give  light.  Begin  at  the  top,  remove  each  article, 


464  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

fold  the  shelf  paper  up  with  its  accumulated  dust,  and 
burn  it.  Scrub  the  shelves,  wipe  dry,  and  then  rub  with  a 
fresh  cloth,  to  remove  all  moisture  possible.  Scatter  pow- 
dered borax  on  the  shelf,  and  in  the  openings,  if  there 
be  any,  between  the  shelves  and  wall;  put  on  clean 
papers,  and  replace  the  things.  (The  borax  is  to  prevent 
the  appearance  of  roaches  on  the  shelves,  if  any  are 
about.)  Continue  so  to  the  bottom,  and  clean  the  closet 
floor  thoroughly,  also.  Closets  are  extremely  convenient, 
but  should  always  be  so  that  they  can  be  lighted  and  aired, 
and  they  must  have  personal  inspection  at  least  once  a 
week.  Such  a  thorough  cleaning  as  that  just  described 
would  probably  not  be  needed  oftener  than  once  a  month ; 
but  there  are  the  pantry  shelves,  the  closet  for  cooking 
utensils,  and  the  dining-room  closet,  and  a  closet  some- 
where on  the  first  floor  for  overcoats,  etc.  This 
makes  four  closets,  one  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  each 
week.  The  closet  floor  should  be  cleaned  and  the  shelves 
•dusted  with  a  slightly  dampened  cloth  every  week. 

Hardwood  floors  are  best  for  kitchen  and  dining  room. 
A  sweeper  is  useful  in  removing  crumbs  from  the  floor  be- 
iore  beginning  to  clean  the  table.  A  hair  broom  covered 
with  a  cloth  of  canton  flannel,  rough  side  out,  is  good  for 
cleaning  walls. 

In  sweeping  a  plain  floor,  matting,  or  carpet,  go  with 
the  grain,  and,  when  possible,  sweep  toward  the  light.  A 
pointed  brush  should  be  at  hand  for  the  corners.  Oiled 
floors  should  be  washed  clean  with  warm  water,  and 
wiped  dry.  A  tile  floor  is  treated  in  the  same  way.  Lino- 
leum and  oilcloth  usually  need  nothing  more  than  warm 
water.  Soapsuds  spoils  the  appearance  of  oilcloth,  and 
when  something  is  needed  in  addition  to  the  water,  put 
a  little  sweet  milk  into  the  pail  of  water.  This  helps  to 
retain  the  luster. 
To  Clean  the  Dining  Room. 

Dust  the  curtains  and  remove.  If  on  rods,  they  are 
easily  lifted  out.  Remove  all  vases  of  cut  flowers.  Re- 


EXTRA   WORK.  465 

move  plants,  and  dust,  and  wash  them,  if  necessary.  Dust 
and  remove  any  articles  which  may  be  on  the  sideboard. 
Dust  the  sideboard,  and  cover  it.  Dust  the  chandelier,  and 
draw  a  bag  over  it  and  tie.  Dust  the  chairs,  and  remove 
them  from  the  room.  Dust  the  pictures,  and  cover  them 
with  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  pinned  over  each.  An  old 
sheet  or  a  piece  of  unbleached  muslin  makes  good  covers 
for  articles  of  furniture  too  heavy  to  move  from  the 
room.  Remove  the  matting,  if  there  is  one,  and  clean  it. 
Clean  the  windows.  A  paint  brush  or  a  brush  for  the 
purpose  will  remove  dust  from  the  corners  of  the  sash. 
Paint  on  the  glass  can  be  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  lit- 
tle baking  soda  on  a  damp  cloth.  Wash  the  windows 
using  simply  warm  water,  if  this  will  suffice.  If  much 
soiled,  use  a  little  baking  soda  in  the  water,  as  soap  in- 
jures the  finish  on  wood  work.  If  they  need  nothing  more 
than  dusting,  rub  the  lower  parts  with  a  dry  cloth,  and  the 
higher  portions  with  a  broom  prepared  for  dusting  walls. 
Use  a  little  ammonia  in  the  water  for  washing  window 
glass,  because  some  soaps  are  hard  to  remove,  and  do  not 
leave  the  glass  clear.  Do  not  wash  windows  when  the 
sun  shines  hot  on  them,  for  they  dry  before  one  can  polish 
them  properly,  and  will  look  streaked  and  spotted.  For 
wiping  window  glass  use  a  soft  cloth  which  will  absorb 
the  water  readily,  and  leave  no  lint  on  the  glass.  A  soft, 
unsized  paper  makes  a  very  satisfactory  material  for  pol- 
ishing window  glass. 

If  the  floor  is  hardwood,  clean  as  directed  above.  If 
polished,  use  a  soft  brush;  if  waxed,  use  a  weighted 
brush.  If  there  are  brass  doorknobs  to  polish,  cut  a  piece 
of  pasteboard  to  fit  exactly  about  the  part  which  lies  on 
the  surface  of  the  door,  that  the  polishing  may  be  done 
without  injuring  the  woodwork. 

Just  a  few  words  about  dust  cloths.  Cheese  cloth  is  the 
best  material  for  dusting.  It  is  soft,  takes  up  the  dust 
well,  and  is  not  hard  on  the  furniture.  When  using  the 
dust  cloth,  fold  the  dust  inside  at  each  stroke,  and  when 


466  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

the  cloth  needs  shaking,  do  not  open  a  window  and  shake 
it,  for  in  this  way  very  often  as  much  dust  comes  in  as 
goes  out.  Better  take  the  cloth  outside,  shut  the  door,  and 
shake  the  cloth  well  to  remove  all  dust.  When  through 
using  it  for  the  day,  put  it  into  a  pail  of  clean  water,  rinse, 
and  dry  ready  for  the  laundry,  and  take  a  clean  one  next 
dusting  time. 

THURSDAY. 

Clean  bedrooms,  upper  hall,  and  stairs.  The  last  one 
to  leave  the  sleeping  room  should  each  morning  place  two 
chairs  at  the  foot  of  the  bed,  throw  the  bed  clothes  back 
over  these,  and  open  doors  and  windows.  It  is  well  to 
leave  the  empty  slop  pail  in  the  bath-room  window  on  the 
way  to  breakfast.  The  air  and  sunshine  then  begin  their 
sanitary  work  upon  the  room  at  once,,  and  the  maid  can 
do  up  the  kitchen  work  while  the  family  are  at  breakfast. 
To  make  beds,  remove  the  bed  clothes,  and,  if  there  be  a 
piazza,  hang  them  on  it  to  air,  provided  the  weather  per- 
mits. If  they  cannot  be  taken  out,  place  them  where  the 
air  will  pass  freely  through  them.  Remove  the  lower 
sheet,  and  shake  it  outside  the  window.  Dust  the  mat- 
tress, and  put  it  out  to  air,  if  you  can.  In  any  case,  re- 
move it  and  dust  the  frame  work  of  the  bed.  Dust  the 
chairs  and  all  movable  things,  and  take  to  another  room, 
and  shut  the  door.  Dust  upholstered  furniture  on  the 
piazza,  if  possible.  Dust  is  one  of  the  mediums  which 
carry  germs,  and  the  more  of  it  we  can  put  outside  the 
house  the  better. 

Remove  all  scarfs,  tidies,  etc.,  shake  outside,  and  carry 
to  the  laundry  when  you  go  down  stairs,  if  they  are  soiled. 
Take  the  rug  up  carefully,  carry  down  stairs,  dust,  and 
leave  on  the  line  if  the  weather  permits.  Dust  dresser  and 
commode,  and  cover  them.  No  soiled  clothing,  old  shoes, 
or  any  garments  which  have  been  worn,  and  are  not  neces- 
sarily kept  in  the  closet,  should  be  allowed  to  remain,  for 
they  emit  odors,  attract  insects,  and  take  up  needed  room. 

Bare  floors  are  best,  because  there  is  no  chance  for  in- 
sects to  harbor.  Take  out  and  shake  and  brush  any 


EXTRA  WORK.  467 

clothing  which  has  escaped  this  before  hanging  up,  and 
clean  the  closet  floor.  If  mattress  and  bedding  are  out 
of  doors,  leave  them  there,  and  proceed  to  clean  the  floor 
by  first  sweeping  the  dirt  from  the  sides  and  corners  of  the 
room,  and  take  all  up  on  the  dust  pan.  Never  sweep  the 
dirt  from  a  room  into  the  hall,  but  keep  it  close  as  pos- 
sible. Now  wash  the  floor,  using  a  clean  mop  in  the 
center  if  you  wish,  but  never  about  the  sides  of  the  room. 
If  the  bed  clothes  must  be  left  in  the  room,  make  the  bed 
just  before  beginning  the  sweeping,  and  cover  up.  Dust 
the  woodwork,  fold  the  furniture  covers  carefully  with 
the  dust  inside,  and  shake  later.  Put  things  again  in  their 
places.  Shut  all  the  bedroom  doors,  open  hall  window, 
and  clean  the  upper  hall  and  stairs.  Use  the  carpet 
sweeper  on  the  carpet,  and  take  the  dirt  up  on  each  side 
of  it  with  broom  and  dust  pan.  Wash  the  floor  with 
water  and  cloth.  Clean  the  carpet  on  the  stairs  with  a 
brush,  and  take  the  dirt  from  each  step  into  the  dust  pan. 
Afterwards  clean  the  uncovered  parts  of  the  steps  with  a 
cloth. 

FRIDAY. 

Friday,  clean  the  silver,  and  sweep  and  dust  the  parlor 
and  front  hall.  If  the  curtains  and  other  draperies  are  on 
rollers  and  easily  removed,  take  them  out  gently,  and 
brush  the  dust  from  them,  and  lay  them  aside.  If  not  re- 
movable, brush  off  the  dust  as  well  as  you  can,  catch 
them  up  near  the  top,  and  cover. 

Take  all  movable  rugs  from  both  hall  and  parlor  out 
doors,  and  brush  them  with  a  soft  brush  on  each  side, 
following  the  line  of  the  nap.  Remove  sofa  pillows  and 
brush  them.  Dust  all  bric-a-brac,  and  remove.  Remove 
all  upholstered  furniture  to  the  piazza,  for  dusting,  if  pos- 
sible; otherwise  brush  and  cover.  Dust  chairs,  and  re- 
move from  the  room,  also  all  other  movable  pieces  of  fur- 
niture, etc.  Dust  pictures,  and  cover.  In  dusting  things 
inside  the  room,  we  only  drive  the  dust  from  one  spot,  to 
have  it  settle  in  another. 


468  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

If  there  is  an  open  book  case  in  the  room,  begin  at  the 
top  and  dust  both  books  and  case,  and  so  proceed  to  the 
bottom  and  cover  all.  Dust  and  cover  all  furniture  in  the 
hall.  If  there  is  a  rug  too  large  to  remove,  dust  it,  roll 
it  up,  and  place  it  at  one  side.  Sweep  the  floors,  and 
while  the  dust  is  settling,  clean  the  rugs  by  wiping  the 
surface  gently  with  a  sponge  squeezed  from  clear  water. 
Clean  the  floors.  Remove  dust  from  walls  and  wood 
work  with  the  covered  hair  broom,  and  clean  the  windows, 
if  they  need  it.  Dust  woodwork,  fold  furniture  covers 
carefully,  as  before,  and  put  things  again  in  place.  Rugs 
too  large  to  be  moved  must  be  sponged  after  sweeping. 
Begin  the  work  on  the  further  side,  and  work  toward  the 
door,  that  you  may  not  step  on  the  cleaned  part  of  the 
rug,  and  be  sure  that  the  sponge  is  damp  only,  not  wet. 

If  the  floor  is  carpeted,  sweep  as  directed,  and  after 
the  dust  settles  use  a  clean  sweeper  and  sponge  same  as 
rugs.  A  carpet  sweeper  should  be  cleaned  very  often. 
Before  sweeping  a  floor,  either  bare  or  carpeted,  scatter 
over  it  some  dust  preventer, — newspapers  soaked  in  cold 
water,  squeezed  as  dry  as  possible,  and  torn  in  bits  are 
most  excellent.  Tea  leaves  squeezed  dry  are  good.  A 
handful  of  salt  scattered  about  will  aid  in  preventing  the 
dust  rising.  Damp  sawdust  is  also  good.  When  all  is 
ready,  remove  the  furniture  covers  with  their  dust,  and 
fold  as  before,  then  put  the  things  again  in  place.  Clean 
the  hall  floor,  and  put  things  in  order  there. 

Polishing  Silver. 

Whiting  is  the  foundation  of  most  silver  polishes.  It  is 
often  wiser  to  buy  or  use  simply  whiting,  which  is 
cheaper  and  sometimes  less  injurious  to  the  silver  than  the 
more  expensive  polishes.  Never  use  ammonia  in  polish- 
ing silver,  as  it  is  apt  to  injure  the  silver.  Rub  with  a 
little  whiting  on  a  damp  cloth,  then  polish  with  a  dry 
cloth,  wash  and  wipe  dry. 

SATURDAY. 

Do  the  extra  baking,  and  clean  the  kitchen  floor. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

HOME-MADE  CANDIES. 

In  making  home-made  candies,  have  a  care  to  the  fol- 
lowing things.  Make  delicate  in  flavor;  also  vary  the 
flavoring  as  much  as  possible.  A  variety  is  made  by  using 
crystalized  ginger,  candied  pineapple,  angelica,  and  can- 
died cherries.  These  aid  both  in  flavor  and  attractiveness. 
Combining  two  flavors,  as  vanilla  and  lemon,  often  pro- 
duces an  agreeable  effect.  Vegetable  colorings  may  be 
used  for  tinting  candies,  but  they  must  be  very  carefully 
used,  or  the  candy  will  be  too  highly  colored.  A  little  on 
the  end  of  a  toothpick  will  be  sufficient  for  the  amount 
of  fondant  made  from  a  cup  of  sugar.  Shape  the  can- 
dies as  nearly  as  possible  like  the  store  products.  They 
appear  clumsy  if  too  large,  and  small  pieces  are  more 
dainty. 

For  immediate  use,  candies  which  will  melt  or  be- 
come sticky  are  not  objectionable,  but  are  better  wrapped 
in  paraffine  paper.  For  packing  to  send  away,  use  only 
the  sugared  bonbons,  candies  made  from  fondant,  etc. 
Filled  figs,  cherries,  and  dates  are  also  good.  Something 
which  will  not  dry  out  nor  melt  readily  is  most  desirable. 

To  Make  Fondant. 

Measure  one  cup  of  granulated  sugar,  and  stir  into  it 
cream  of  tartar  half  the  size  of  a  small  pea.  Put  the  sugar 
into  a  small  vessel  (granite  ware  or  tin),  and  pour  over  it 
three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  hot  water.  Cover  closely,  and 
cook  covered  and  without  stirring  until  it  will  form  a  soft 
ball  in  cold  water.  Pour  into  a  pint  bowl,  and  let  cool  un- 
til you  can  touch  the  surface  lightly  without  its  adhering 
to  the  finger.  When  cooled  to  this  point,  stir  rapidly  with 
a  stiff,  small  spoon  until  it  becomes  thick  and  white,  but 
not  until  it  grains.  Pour  into  a  previously  lightly  but- 


470  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

tered  dish.  Take  the  mass  in  the  hands,  and  knead  until 
it  becomes  creamy.  If  it  hardens  suddenly,  wet  the 
hands  slightly,  and  continue  to  work  it.  Roll  in  paraffine 
paper,  and  lay  away  for  a  day,  when  it  will  usually  be 
found  creamy,  and  ready  for  use,  but  if  lack  of  experi- 
ence causes  it  to  grain,  rolling  tightly  in  oiled  paper  for  a 
few  hours  will  usually  remedy  this. 
Fondant  No.  2. 

Two  cups  of  sugar,  one-third  of  a  cup  of  glucose,  one 
and  one-half  cups  of  water.  Boil  until  it  forms  a  stiff  ball 
in  cold  water.  Pour  into  a  bowl,  and,  when  cool,  beat  un- 
til white,  then  knead  in  hands  until  creamy. 

Sugar  Taffy — (For  Beginners.) 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one-sixth  of  a  cup  of  glucose,  one 
and  one-half  cups  of  water.     Boil  until  it  will  form  a  hard 
ball  in  cold  water.    Turn  into  buttered  tins,  and  finish  as 
any  other  taffy.    " 
Brown  Sugar  Taffy. 

Put  into  a  saucepan  six  tablespoonfuls  (or  three  ounces) 
of  butter  and  three  and  one-half  cups  (or  one  pound)  of 
brown  sugar  and  one  cup  of  hot  water,  boil  to  the  crack- 
ing stage.  Pour  into  greased  plates,  and  mark  into 
squares  and  let  cool  and  harden,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 
Or  the  candy  may  be  allowed  to  cool  slightly  and  pulled 
as  taffy. 
Brown  Sugar  Taffy—Class  Rule. 

One  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  three- 
fourths  cup  of  sugar,  one- fourth  cup  of  hot  water.  Pro- 
ceed as  in  home  rule. 

Velvet  Molasses  Candy. 

Velvet  molasses  candy  is  nice,  and  can  be  easily  formed 
into  any  fancy  shapes  if  one  chooses  to  have  it  so. 

One-fourth  cup  of  molasses,  three-fourths  cup  of  sugar, 
one-fourth  cup  of  boiling  water,  three-fourths  table- 
spoonful  of  vinegar,  one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  cream  of 
tartar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  one-sixteenth  tea- 


HOME-MADE    CANDIES.  471 

spoonful  soda.  Put  the  first  four  ingredients  into  a 
saucepan  over  the  fire.  When  the  contents  of  the  pan 
boil,  add  the  cream  of  tartar.  Boil  until  it  is  brittle  when 
tried  in  cold  water.  Stir  constantly  during  the  last  part 
of  the  cooking. 

When  nearly  done,  add  the  butter  and  soda.  Cool,  and 
pull  as  taffy.  While  pulling,  add  a  few  drops  of  vanilla 
and  a  few  drops  of  lemon  extract,  or  a  few  drops  of  pep- 
permint or  wintergreen. 

Plain  Molasses  Candy. 

One  cup  of  granulated  sugar,  one  cup  of  sorghum  mo- 
lasses, two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  butter,  soda  the  size  of  a 
pea,  one  cup  of  water.  Boil  the  molasses,  sugar  and  wa- 
ter until  a  little  of  the  candy  dropped  into  cold  water  will 
form  a  hard  ball,  put  in  the  butter  and  soda,  boil  to  the 
cracking  stage,  turn  into  buttered  pans  and  pull  as  taffy. 
Flavor  to  taste. 

Butter  Scotch. 

One-half  cup  sugar,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  molasses,  one 
tablespoonful  of  vinegar,  three  tablespoonfuls  of  butter. 
Boil  together  until  brittle  when  tried  in  cold  water. 
When  done,  turn  into  a  well-buttered  dish,  and  mark  into 
squares  when  partly  cool. 

Toffee. 

One  pound  of  brown  sugar,  one-half  cup  of  butter, 
juice  of  one  lemon,  or  four  tablespoonfuls  of  vinegar. 
Heat  sugar,  butter,  and  acid  over  the  fire  to  270°  F.,  and 
pour  over  nuts,  and  let  harden.  Or  cook  until  it  forms  a 
soft  ball  in  cold  water. 

Peanut  Candy. 

One  cup  of  coffee  C  sugar,  one  cup  rolled  peanuts. 
Melt  sugar  in  hot  pan.  Mix  with  peanuts,  pour  into  a 
hot  pan,  and  spread  with  a  knife. 

Peanut  Nougat. 

One  pound  of  granulated  sugar,  one  quart  of  peanuts. 
Blanch  peanuts  (may  chop),  and  sprinkle  with  one- 


472  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Melt  the  sugar,  keeping 
it  from  sides  of  pan.  Pour  in  the  nuts,  and  turn  into  but- 
tered dish  to  cool. 

Maple  Cream. 

One  cup  of  brown  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of  granulated 
sugar,  one-half  cup  of  milk  or  cream.  Cook  without  stir- 
ring until  it  will  form  a  soft  ball  in  cold  water.  Remove 
from  the  fire,  and  beat  until  creamy,  pour  into  shallow  pan 
(buttered),  and  cut  into  cubes. 
Walnut  Cream. 

Another  delicious  compound  may  be  made  by  adding 
walnut  meats  to  the  maple  cream  just  before  removing  it 
from  the  fire. 

If  one  level  tablespoonful  of  glucose  is  used  with  the 
above,  there  will  be  no  danger  of  its  being  grainy. 

Maple  and  Nut  Bar. 

One  pound  of  maple  sugar,  three-fourths  cup  of  thin 
cream,  one-fourth  cup  of  boiling  water,  two-thirds  cup  of 
English  walnuts,  or  pecan  nuts,  cut  in  pieces.  Put  water 
and  sugar  into  a  saucepan.  When  it  boils,  pour  in  the 
cream.  Boil  until  it  gives  a  soft  ball,  remove  from  the  fire, 
and  beat  until  creamy.  Brown  sugar  may  be  used. 
When  creamy,  stir  in  the  nuts  and  turn  into  buttered  tins 
to  cool. 
Maple  and  Nut  Bar — Class  Rule. 

One-third  pound  of  maple  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of 
cream,  one-eighth  cup  of  boiling  water,  one-sixth  cup  of 
walnuts.  Proceed  as  in  home  rule. 

Nut  Roll. 

Nut  roll  is  usually  appreciated  by  the  children. 

One  ounce  blanched  almonds,  one  ounce  English  wal- 
nuts, one  ounce  pecan  nuts,  one  ounce  pistachio  nuts.  Mix 
the  above  with  one-half  pound  of  fondant,  and  flavor  with 
almond  extract.  Roll  out  and  cut  into  desired  form. 

Another  variety  may  be  made  by  grating  fresh  cocoa- 
nut,  and  mixing  with  the  fondant. 


HOME-MADE   CANDIES.  473 

Fruit  Balls. 

Chop  together  one  ounce  citron,  six  raisins,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  currants,  one  fig  and  three  walnut  meats. 
Mix  with  these  a  piece  of  fondant  the  size  of  an  egg.  Roll 
into  balls  a  little  larger  than  a  hazel  nut,  and  place  on 
oiled  paper  to  harden.  Cover  such  with  fondant  flavored 
with  vanilla.  This  is  done  by  flattening  a  piece  of  fond- 
ant in  the  hand,  then  rolling  around  the  ball,  or  melt  the 
fodant,  and  dip  same  as  directed  for  chdlocate  creams. 

Cocoanut  Bar. 

Two  cups  of  sugar,  one  cup  of  water  or  milk,  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  cream  tartar,  or  use  two  level  table- 
spoons of  glucose,  one-fourth  pound  dessicated  cocoanut. 
Stir  all  but  cocoanut  until  thoroughly  dissolved,  then 
cook  gently  until  it  forms  a  soft  ball  in  cold  water.  Re- 
move immediately  from  the  fire,  and  when  ready, — that  is 
cooled  a  little, — beat  until  white,  then  add  cocoanut,  and 
pour  out  at  once.  It  should  be  soft  and  creamy.  Fresh- 
grated  cocoanut  is  better  than  dessicated. 

Chocolate  Caramels. 

Cream  well  together  one-eighth  of  a  pound  of  unsweet- 
ened chocolate,  one-fourth  cup  of  sugar,  one-fourth  cup  of 
molasses,  one-fourth  cup  of  milk  or  cream,  and  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter.  Boil  all  together  until  the  candy 
cracks  when  tried  in  cold  water,  then  pour  one-half  inch 
thick  in  a  buttered  pan.  When  nearly  cold,  mark  into 
small  squares.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in  cooking,  or 
the  caramels  will  be  burned.  Do  not  stir  while  cooking, 
but  scrape  from  bottom  to  prevent  burning. 

Caramel  Creams  No.  1. 

Two  pounds  sugar,  one  cup  of  thick  cream,  two  ounces 
of  fresh  butter.  Melt  sugar  with  one-half  cup  water. 
When  the  mixture  boils,  pour  in  cream  very  slowly,  stir- 
ring, then  add  butter  and  flavoring,  stirring  gently,  but 
constantly.  As  soon  as  the  syrup  is  brittle,  and  has  the 
odor  of  caramel,  pour  out  and  beat,  mark  as  chocolate  car- 
amel. 


474  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Caramel  Creams  No.  2. 

Milk,  one  cup;  sugar,  one  cup;  molasses,  one  cup; 
chocolate,  one  square  (grated)  ;  one  tablespoonful  of  but- 
ter; one  teaspoonful  of  vanilla.  Put  all  the  ingredients 
except  the  vanilla  into  a  saucepan,  and  boil  without  stir- 
ring until  it  forms  a  soft  ball  when  placed  in  cold  water. 
Remove  from  the  fire,  and  stir  until  it  thickens.  Then 
take  into  the  hands  and  knead,  working  the  vanilla  into  it. 
Form  into  balls,  and  after  it  has  dried  a  little,  dip  in  white 
fondant  melted  over  hot  water,  and  flavored  with  vanilla. 
Or  when  it  thickens,  pour  quickly  into  a  buttered  dish  and 
mark  in  squares. 

To  Make  Chocolate  Creams. 

As  soon  as  the  white  fondant  is  kneaded  until  soft  and 
creamy,  flavor  it  to  taste  with  vanilla,  and  shape  it  into 
forms  a  little  smaller  than  those  found  at  the  confec- 
tioner's stands,  drop  on  paraffine  paper,  and  let  stand 
until  they  dry  a  very  little,  while  you  prepare  the  coating. 
Confectioners'  chocolate  gives  a  coating  more  satisfactory 
in  appearance  and  flavor,  but  the  common  bakers'  choco- 
late is  very  good.  Grate  the  chocolate  into  a  teacup.  Place 
the  cup  in  a  basin  of  boiling  water,  or  on  the  top  of  the 
teakettle,  but  see  that  no  water  gets  into  the  cup.  When 
melted,  flavor  with  vanilla.  Place  a  prepared  cream  on 
a  fork  or  candy  tongs,  dip  into  the  cup  of  melted  choco- 
late, let  drain  slightly,  and  place  on  paraffine  paper  to 
dry. 

To  Make  Chocolate  Almonds. 

Shell  and  blanch  a  pound  of  almonds,  and  dry  them 
with  a  cloth.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  melted  butter  in  a  pan, 
and  shake  the  almonds  about  until  greased  all  over,  then 
roast  in  the  oven  until  a  delicate  brown.  Melt  together  a 
half  cup  of  fondant  and  one  and  one-half  squares  of 
grated  chocolate.  Stir  until  thoroughly  mixed,  and 
flavor  with  vanilla,  if  desired.  Dip  the  almond^  ^ame  as 
chocolate  creams,  and  dry  on  paraffine  paper.  Peani'rs, 
walnuts,  or  pecans  can  be  dipped  in  the  same  manner. 


HOME-MADE   CANDIES.  475 

Marsh  Mallows. 

One  ounce  of  granulated  gum  arable,  cover  with  cold 
water  and  let  soak  one  hour,  then  set  the  bowl  containing 
it  in  hot  water  until  the  gum  arable  is  thoroughly  dis- 
solved. Strain  into  double  boiler  and  add  one-half  cup 
of  granulated  sugar  and  stir  continually  over  the  fire  in 
the  upper  part  of  double  boiler  with  water  under  it  for 
at  least  twenty  minutes.  Take  from  the  fire  and  beat  un- 
til stiff  and  white.  Return  to  the  fire  and  allow  to  remain 
until  hot,  then  add  one  teaspoonf  ul  of  vanilla  and  the  well- 
beaten  whites  of  two  eggs;  mix  well  together  and  pour 
into  molds  dusted  well  with  powdered  sugar. 
Fudge. 

One  level  teaspoonful  of  glucose,  two  cups  of  granu- 
lated sugar,  one  cup  of  milk  or  water,  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  butter,  two  squares  of  chocolate  (grated)  and  a  dash 
of  salt.  Put  all  except  the  chocolate  into  a  saucepan  and 
boil  until  it  will  form  a  soft  ball  in  cold  water.  Add  the 
chocolate  and  as  soon  as  it  is  melted  remove  from  the 
fire,  flavor  with  vanilla,  beat  well,  pour  into  a  greased 
mold,  and  when  partly  cool  mark  into  squares. 
Cream  Candy. 

To  one  pound  of  granulated  sugar  allow  one  teaspoon- 
ful of  vinegar,  one  teaspoonful  of  flavoring,  one-half 
a  teaspoonful  of  glucose,  and  one  cupful  of  water.  Boil 
the  sugar,  vinegar,  water,  and  glucose  together  until  it 
snaps  when  tested  in  water.  Add  the  flavoring,  pour  out 
on  a  greased  platter,  and  when  cool  enough  to  handle,  pull 
until  white.  One-half  teaspoonful  of  cream  of  tartar  may 
be  used  instead  of  the  glucose. 

Cream  Candy  No.  2. — Mrs.  Clark. 

Four  pounds  of  granulated  sugar,  one  pint  rich  cream, 
one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one  pint  of  water.  Let  the 
sugar  dissolve  before  it  boils.  After  it  begins  to  boil, 
pour  the  cream  in  slowly,  so  as  not  to  stop  the  boiling, 
taking  perhaps  five  minutes  to  put  the  cream  in.  Cook  to 


476  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

cracking  point  (twenty  to  thirty  minutes),  so  that,  when 
dropped  into  water,  the  stick  formed  can  be  broken  on 
the  side  of  the  bowl.  Take  off  and  pour  on  a  slightly 
greased  marble  slab,  and  let  cool.  Lift  from  the  slab  a 
piece  here  and  there  with  the  fingers  to  facilitate  cooling 
and  pull  until  white  and  creamy.  It  will  grain  if  pulled 
when  warm.  It  is  better  after  standing  a  few  days. 

Cream  Candy — (For  Class  Work,) 

One  pound  sugar,  one-half  cup  cream,  one-half  cup  of 
water.  Proceed  as  in  home  rule. 

Wintergreen  and  Peppermint  Creams. 

One  and  one-half  cups  sugar,  one  cup  boiling  water, 
cream  of  tartar  one-half  size  of  a  pea.  Boil  to  a  soft  ball, 
and  treat  same  as  fondant.  When  stirred  to  a  proper  con- 
sistency, color  a  delicate  pink,  and  drop  on  oiled  paper. 
For  flavoring  use  six  drops  of  peppermint  or  wintergreen 
for  the  above  amount. 

Almond  Creams. 

Shell  and  blanch  almonds,  and  dip  in  fondant  flavored 
with  almond  extract. 

Orange  Creams. 

Make  small  flattened  balls  of  white  fondant,  and  flavor 
with  orange  and  coat  with  orange-colored  fondant. 

Creamed  Dates. 

Take  out  date  seeds,  and  fill  the  cavity  with  fondant, 
then  cover  with  fondant. 

Bonbons. 

The  centers  of  bonbons  are  made  of  fondant,  shaped 
in  small  balls.  These  may  be  covered  with  chocolate,  etc. 
When  white  is  used,  flavor  as  desired,  vanilla  is  pre- 
ferred. Do  not  make  coating  too  intense.  May  dip  wal- 
nut kernels  several  times  for  bonbons,  also  dates,  figs,  al- 
monds and  raisins. 

Tutti  Frutti  Candy. 

Put  into  the  bottom  of  a  greased  pan  a  layer  of  maple 


HOME-MADE   CANDIES.  477 

fondant,  well  mixed  with  nuts.  Color  the  second  layer 
with  pink,  flavor,  and  mix  with  it  candied  cherries  cut  in 
quarters,  and  figs  chopped  fine.  Make  the  third  layer 
white,  flavor  with  vanilla,  and  mix  with  fine  chopped 
cherries,  candied  nuts,  and  candied  pineapple.  Pour  a 
thin  layer  of  plain  white  fondant  over  the  top. 

Stuffed  Dates. 

Stuffed  dates  help  to  make  variety.  Remove  the  seeds 
from  the  tiates  and  put  in  their  places  white  rolls  of 
fondant.  Candied  cherries  are  stuffed  in  the  same  way. 

Stuffed  Raisins. 

Cut  each  raisin  into  two  parts,  and  remove  the  seeds. 
Put  in  a  small  roll  of  fondant.  Put  the  two  parts  to- 
gether again,  dip  the  raisin  in  egg  white,  and  roll  in  the 
small  colored  candies  used  for  decorating  cakes. 

Candied  Nuts. 

Dip  nut  kernels  into  white  or  tinted  fondant,  and  let 
harden  on  oiled  paper. 

Uncooked  Candies. 

The  cooked  candies  are  more  desirable,  but  it  is  some- 
times more  convenient  to  make  the  uncooked  candies. 

Beat  the  white  of  an  egg  very  stiff.  Then  add  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  water.  Put  in  enough  powdered  sugar 
to  make  a  thick  batter,  and  stir  in  cocoanut  (grated 
fresh)  until  it  can  be  handled.  Roll  into  balls,  dip  in 
beaten  egg,  and  cover  the  outside  with  as  much  cocoanut 
as  can  be  made  to  adhere  to  it. 

Uncooked  Chocolate  Creams. 

Beat  the  white  of  one  egg  very  stiff,  and  beat  into  it 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  sweet  cream.  Stir  in  confectioners' 
sugar  until  very  stiff.  Form  into  balls  with  the  hands, 
let  dry  a  few  minutes,  and  coat  as  chocolate  creams. 

References:     Cakes  and  Cake  Decorations — King — Part  2; 
Candy  Making — Catherine  Owen;  Buckeye  Cook  Book,  p.  139; 
Philadelphia  Cook  Book— Rorer— p.  509. 
Boston  Cooking  School  Cook  Book — Farmer — pp.  446  to  457. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 
To  Stone  Raisins. 

Put  the  raisins  in  a  dish,  and  pour  boiling  water  over 
them.  Let  stand  until  the  seeds  will  slip,  then  pour  the 
water  off,  take  each  raisin  in  the  fingers,  and  force  the 
seeds  altogether  at  the  stem  end,  and  remove  them.  Dry 
same  as  currants. 

To  Clean  Currants. 

Put  the  currants  in  a  colander,  set  it  in  a  pan  of  water, 
and  wash  them,  letting  sand  and  stems  pass  into  the 
water.  Use  as  many  different  waters  as  seem  necessary 
to  clean  them.  When  clean,  put  on  a  cloth,  and  dry  in  the 
air,  stirring  occasionally. 

To  Procure  Onion  Juice. 

Peel  the  onion,  cut  in  pieces,  and  use  a  lemon  squeezer 
or  a  potato  ricer  to  extract  the  juice.  When  using  onion 
for  sauces,  etc.,  first  peel  the  onion,  then  cut  a  slice  from 
the  end,  and  scrape  with  a  kitchen  knife,  or  score  the 
onion  both  ways  half  way  down,  making  the  dice  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch,  and  cut  in  thin  slices  with  a  sharp 
knife.  Always  put  onion  in  vinegar  when  it  must  stand 
a  short  time  in  making  salads.  Never  use  an  onion  that 
has  lain  after  cutting.  Onions  absorb  odors  readily,  and 
are  not  wholesome  after  cut  surfaces  are  exposed  to  the 
air. 

To  Make  a  Thickening  of  Water  and  Flour. 

Measure  the  flour,  add  an  equal  amount  of  cold  water, 
and  stir  until  smooth;  then  add  more  water,  until  it  is 
thin  as  griddle  cake  batter.  Now  add  carefully  a  little 
of  the  liquid  to  be  thickened,  and  when  very  thin,  pour 
slowly  into  the  boiling  liquid,  stirring  rapidly,  and  pour- 
ing slowly.  In  making  a  boiled  custard,  pour  the  boil- 


MISCELLANEOUS.  479 

ing  milk  over  the  beaten  eggs  in  the  same  way  to  prevent 
lumping. 

To  Open  a  Lobster. 

Never  open  a  lobster  until  ready  to  use  it.  First  re- 
move the  large  claws,  then  take  off  small  claws.  If  you 
wish  to  use  the  shells,  make  an  incision  where  the  tail 
joins  the  body,  turn  the  lobster  breast  up,  place  the 
thumb  on  the  back  and  break  the  lobster,  then  cut  along 
each  side  (inside  the  tail)  and  remove  the  meat,  then 
break  or  cut  along  center  of  the  meat  on  the  upper  side 
and  remove  vein,  which  may  be  red  or  green,  very  light 
or  very  dark .  Now  take  out  meat  from  body  by  running 
the  ringers  under  and  pulling  up  and  removing,  leaving 
the  stomach  or  lady  in  the  shell.  Pull  off  the  spongy 
fingers  and  take  out  the  meat.  If  the  shells  are  to  be 
used  trim  and  scrub  and  cut  body  shell  in  center.  Spongy 
fingers  are  the  lungs. 

To  Clarify  Mutton  Fat. 

Free  the  mutton  fat  from  all  objectionable  parts,  and 
put  to  soak  in  enough  cold  water  to  cover.  Let  stand 
twenty-four  hours  and  change  the  water  once.  Pour  off 
the  water  in  which  the  mutton  fat  has  soaked  and  add  one 
cup  of  liquid  (half  milk  and  half  water)  for  each  pound 
of  mutton  fat,  and  cook  until  the  liquid  is  evaporated, 
then  strain  out  the  clear  fat  and  cool.  This  fat  may  be 
used  for  ginger  snaps  and  ginger  cake. 

To  Cook  a  Lobster. 

Plunge  head  first  into  boiling  salted  water,  and  cook 
rapidly  for  twenty  minutes,  if  the  lobster  is  large;  other- 
wise, a  shorter  time.  A  small  lobster  will  cook  in  eight 
minutes.  Too  long  cooking  makes  the  meat  tough. 

LUNCH  DISHES. 

V 

Sweetbreads  and  Mushrooms  on  Toast. 

Blanch  the  sweetbreads  by  allowing  to  lie  in  salted 
water  for  a  time,  then  put  to  cook  in  boiling  salted  water, 


480  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

and  let  cook  until  tender.  Let  cool  in  the  water  in  which 
they  were  cooked.  Separate  at  the  natural  division  lines, 
and  free  from  inedible  parts.  Prepare  a  white  sauce, 
using-  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  chicken  or  veal  broth,  and 
one-fourth  of  a  cup  of  sweet  cream.  Put  into  a  sauce- 
pan over  the  fire  one  and  one-half  level  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour,  and  one  of  butter.  Stir  until  smooth,  then  add  the 
liquid,  and  stir  constantly,  allowing  to  thicken,  and  then 
boil  a  few  rhinutes.  Season  to  taste,  add  the  sweetbreads, 
and  about  one-sixth  as  many  button  mushrooms,  let  boil, 
pour  over  nicely-browned  toast,  and  serve. 

Breast  of  Chicken  in  Cream. 

Tear  out  the  breast  of  a  cold  boiled  chicken  in  two 
parts.  Make  a  sauce  of  chicken  broth,  flour  and  butter 
or  milk  thickened  with  flour  and  butter,  same  as  for 
sweetbreads.  Put  the  chicken  breasts  into  it,  boil  up,  and 
serve  garnished  with  calf's  liver  cooked  in  chicken  broth, 
and  cut  to  resemble  chicken  livers. 

Boiled  Tongue  With  Tomato  Sauce. 

Freshen  a  tongue  in  cold  water,  then  cook  in  boiling 
water  until  tender.  Serve  hot  with  a  dressing  made  from 
strained  tomatoes,  to  which  the  browning  from  the  roast- 
ing pan  has  been  added,  using  one-fourth  as  much  brown- 
ing as  tomato.  Thicken  same  as  tomato  sauce  for  meats. 
Skewer  the  tip  of  the  tongue  to  the  base  before  cooking, 
to  keep  in  place. 
Mock  Terrapin. 

Make  a  brown  sauce  as  follows :  Put  into  a  saucepan 
one  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and  one  of  but- 
ter. Stir  until  a  nice  brown,  then  add  one  cup  of  beef 
broth,  minus  two  tablespoonfuls,  which  have  been  mixed 
with  one  tablespoonful  of  flour.  When  the  liquid  boils, 
pour  the  mixture  into  it  and  cook  until  it  thickens,  then 
add  cooked  veal  freed  from  hard  parts  and  cut  into  small 
dice,  and  a  few  canned  button  mushrooms.  Season  to 
taste,  and  serve. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


481 


Luncheon  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Wash  and  steam  sweet  potatoes  of  equal  and  medium 
size.  When  tender,  remove  the  skins  and  cut  once  length- 
wise. Mix  together  equal  parts  of  butter  and  sugar,  and 
add  hot  water  to  make  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream. 
Lay  the  potatoes  evenly  in  the  baking  dish,  pour  a  portion 
of  the  sauce  on  each  potato,  and  brown  in  the  oven.  Serve 
in  the  dish  in  which  they  were  baked. 
Macaroni  or  Spaghetti  in  Tomato  Cups. 

Select  ripe,  red  tomatoes  of  medium  and  uniform  size, 
cut  off  the  blossom  end  one-third  of  the  way  down,  and 


Baking  Dish. 

scoop  out  the  inside.  Cut. out  the  core,  and  mix  the  re- 
mainder with  spaghetti,  which  has  been  broken  in  three- 
inch  lengths,  and  steamed  for  three  hours.  Use  three 
parts  of  boiling  water  to  each  part  (cup)  of  spaghetti, 
and  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  each  pint  of  liquid. 
Sprinkle  salt  and  pepper  over  the  scooped  tomato,  as  if 
it  were  to  be  eaten  raw,  stir  in  a  teaspoonful  of  butter, 
take  equal  parts  of  tomato  and  spaghetti,  mix  well,  and 
fill  the  cups.  Cover  the  tops  with  buttered  crumbs,  and 
bake  about  fifteen  minutes,  but  do. not* allow  the  cups  to 
become  too  soft. 

16 


482  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Scalloped  Oysters. 

Wash  fresh  oysters,  drain  through  a  colander,  and 
free  them  from  shells.  Season  bread  crumbs  with  salt, 
pepper,  and  butter,  the  same  as  for  chicken  dressing. 
Then  place  in  the  platter  in  which  the  oysters  are  to  be 
served  a  layer  of  crumbs  and  a  layer  of  oysters,  until  you 
have  two  layers  of  oysters.  Then  put  in  a  part  of  a  layer 
of  oysters,  and  round  up  the  dish.  Finish  with  a  layer  of 
crumbs,  and  place  in  the  oven.  Twenty  minutes  is  usu- 
ally required  to  bake  them. 

Creamed  Oysters. 

Make  a  thick  white  sauce  as  for  croquettes,  put  in  the 
oysters,  and  let  cook  until  the  edges  curl.  Serve  hot. 

Oyster  Patties. 

Make  a  white  sauce,  using  one  tablespoonful  of  butter 
and  two  of  flour,  and  one-half  cup  of  whole  milk.  Sea- 
son to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper,  put  in  the  oysters,  al- 
lowing three  to  each  patty,  and  let  cook  until  the  edges 
curl.  Fill  the  patties  with  them. 

Oyster  and  Mushroom  Patties. 

One-half  a  can  of  mushrooms,  about  two  dozen  oysters, 
one  tablespoonful  of  lemon  juice.  Free  the  oysters  from 
shells,  put  into  the  saucepan,  and  cook  until  plump,  then 
dip  the  oysters  out.  Add  the  mushroom  liquor  to  this 
and  sweet  cream  enough  to  make  two  cups.  Thicken  with 
six  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  and  three  of  butter,  add  the 
mushrooms,  and  when  the  sauce  is  cooked,  add  the  oys- 
ters, and  let  boil.  Season,  and  fill  patty  cases. 

Panned  Oysters. 

Butter,  salt,  and  pepper  the  pan,  and  when  hot,  put  in 
the  oysters.  Shake  quickly  over  the  fire,  and  turn-  onto 
hot  toast.  Or  they  may  be  served  without  toast. 

Creamed  Lobster. 

In  creamed  lobster  use  more  pepper  than  usual,  and  use 
a  little  mustard  to  tone  down  the  flavor.  Mix  mustard 


MISCELLANEOUS.  483 

with  salt.     May  use  also  one  hard-boiled  egg  to  each 
cup  of  diced  lobster,  as  this  improves  the  flavor. 

Meat  Pie  With  Potato  Crust. 

Cut  cold  meat  into  small  cubes  or  thin  slices. .  Pour 
over  it  meat  gravy,  tomato  or  brown  sauce.  Spread 
a  crust  of  mashed  potato  over  the  meat.  Sprinkle  with 
bread  crumbs,  and  bake  twenty  minutes,  or  until  brown. 

Meat  Pie  With  Macedoine  Sauce. 

Use  cold  meat,  sliced  thin,  and  cut  into  small  pieces. 
Put  this  into  the  dish  you  wish  to  serve  it  in,  cover  meat 
with  Macedoine  sauce,  and  over  this  put  a  layer  of  mashed 
potatoes  one-half  inch  thick.  Cover  this  with  seasoned, 
buttered  bread  crumbs,  and  bake  until  a  nice  brown. 

Meat  Pie  With  Tomato  Sauce. 

Use  cold  meat,  sliced  thin,  and  cut  into  small  pieces. 
Put  the  meat  into  the  dish  you  wish  to  serve  it  in,  cover 
meat  with  tomato  sauce,  and  over  this  put  a  layer  of 
mashed  potatoes  one-half  an  inch  thick.  Cover  this  with 
seasoned  bread  crumbs,  and  bake  until  a  nice  brown. 

Meat  Pie  With  Eice  Crust. 

Boil  rice  in  salted  water  and  drain.  Prepare  meat  as 
for  hash,  and  to  each  pint  of  meat  which  has  been  pre- 
pared, add  one  beaten  egg  and  sufficient  broth  or  gravv 
to  moisten.  Put  the  mixture  into  a  buttered  dish,  cover 
top  with  rice,  and  this  with  buttered  bread  crumbs  and 
bake. 

Beet  Croquettes. 

Two  good-sized  beets,  one  cup  of  milk,  three  level  ta- 
blesoonfuls  of  butter,  six  level  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  one- 
half  teaspoonful  of  paprika,  one  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one- 
fourth  teaspoonful  of  mace,  one  teaspoonful  of  onion 
juice.  Make  the  butter,  flour,  and  milk  into  a  sauce,  put 
in  the  seasoning.  Chop  the  beets  fine,  and  moisten  with 
the  sauce.  Form  into  croquettes,  let  cool,  coat,  and  fry 
in  deep  fat.  Serve  with  a  sauce. 


484  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Sauce  for  Croquettes. 

Two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  two  level  table- 
spoonfuls  of  butter,  one  cup  of  milk,  one-half  teaspoon- 
fnl  of  paprika,  one-fourth  teaspoon ful  of  salt,  flavor  with 
one  drop  of  onion  juice. 

Lobster  Croquettes  or  Cutlets. 

Make  sauce  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  butter,  three 
tablespoonfuls  of  flour,  and  one  cup  of  milk.  Season  with 
salt,  pepper,  mustard,  and  lemon  juice.  Add  one  pint  of 
diced  lobster,  and  spread  on  a  platter  to  cool.  When 
cool,  shape  into  cutlets  or  croquettes,  roll  in  bread  crumbs, 
then  in  beaten  eggs,  then  in  crumbs  again,  and  fry  in  hot 
fat.  Serve  with  mock  bisque  sauce. 

Croquettes,  like  oysters,  require  very  hot  fat,  because 
easily  cooked.  When  the  food  is  taken  from  the  fat,  put 
in  a  piece  of  potato.  Never  leave  hot  fat  with  nothing  in 
it  for  an  instant. 

Mock  Bisque  Sauce. 

From  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  strained  tomato,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  butter,  and  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  make 
a  sauce.  When  cooked,  remove  from  the  stove>  and  stir 
into  it  one-third  of  a  cup  of  sweet  cream  (putting  in  only 
a  few  drops  at  a  time),  and  stirring  constantly.  Season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve  with  lobster  croquettes. 

Rice  Croquettes. 

Cook  the  rice  in  the  double  boiler,  using  three  times  as 
much  boiling  water  as  rice,  salt  to  taste,  flavor  with 
orange,  and  mix  with  white  sauce.  To  half  a  pint  of  rice 
use  the  white  of  an  egg  and  a  few  drops  of  orange  ex- 
tract, half  a  teaspoonful  of  butter,  and  a  teaspoonful  of 
cream.  Form  into  balls,  coat  with  egg,  roll  in  cracker 
crumbs,  coat  again  with  egg,  and  fry  in  deep  fat  until  a 
good  brown.  Or  they  may  be  made  by  simply  mixing 
the  drained  rice  with  egg  white,  using  one  egg  to  each 
cup  of  rice.  Coat  and  fry  as  before. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  485 

Sauce  for  Serving  Rice  Croquettes. 

To  one  cup  of  fruit  juice,  strawberry,  blackberry,  or 
raspberry,  add  one-half  cup  of  sugar  in  which  has  been 
mixed  one  level  tablespoonful  of  cornstarch  or  two  level 
teaspoonfuls  of  arrowroot,  boil  until  it  thickens  and 
serve  with  the  croquettes.  Water  may  be  used  instead 
of  fruit  juice  and  fresh  fruit  cut  in  pieces  and  put  in 
while  the  sauce  is  hot., 

Chicken  Croquettes. 

One-half  cup  of  chicken,  chopped  very  fine,  one-fourth 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  celery  salt, 
a  dash  of  cayenne  pepper,  one-sixth  of  a  teaspoonful  of 
white  pepper,  two  drops  of  onion  juice,  one-half  tea- 
spoonful  of  parsley,  chopped  fine,  one-half  teaspoonful 
of  lemon  juice.  Mix  with  this  white  sauce  to  make  the 
croquettes  as  soft  as  it  is  possible  to  handle  them.  Form 
into  shapes  desired,  roll  in  egg  slightly  beaten  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  water  or  milk,  then  in  crumbs  (very 
fine),  again  in  the  egg,  then  again  in  crumbs,  and  fry  in 
deep  fat  until  a  nice  brown.  They  can  be  handled  more 
easily  if,  before  forming,  the  meat  and  sauce,  mixed  to- 
gether, be  spread  on  a  plate  and  allowed  to  cool. 

Cream  Sauce  for  Mixing  Croquettes. 

One-Half  cup  of  broth  or  whole  milk  (chicken  or  veal 
broth  is  used),  one  level  tablespoonful  butter,  two  level 
tablespoonfuls  flour,  one-eighth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt, 
one-eighth  teaspoonful  of  celery  salt,  one-eighth  teaspoon- 
ful of  pepper,  a  speck  of  cayenne  pepper. 

Serve  the  chicken  croquettes  with  mushroom  or 
bechamel  sauce,  or  with  mock  bisque  or  cream  sauce. 

Mushroom  Sauce. 

Mushroom  sauce  is  made  by  adding  one  tablespoonful 
of  lemon  juice  to  one  cup  cream  sauce,  also  one-half  cup 
cooked  mushrooms  cut  in  pieces.  Brown  sauce  may  be 
used  instead  of  white. 


486  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Bechamel  Sauce. 

Bechamel  sauce  is  made  by  making  white  sauce  with 
clear  stock  and  cream,  instead  of  milk,  and  is  highly  sea- 
soned. One  whole  egg,  or  two  beaten  yolks,  are  added 
just  before  serving. 

Potato  Croquettes. 

One  cup  of  mashed  potatoes,  one-half  tablespoonful  of 
butter,  very  little  pepper,  both  white  and  cayenne,  one- 
fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  one-fourth  of  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  celery  salt,  two  drops  of  onion  juice.  Form  into 
croquettes,  let  cool,  coat,  and  fry. 

Meat  and  Eice  Croquettes. 

Use  equal  parts  of  cold  boiled  rice  and  finely  hashed 
meat.  Mix  together,  season  with  pepper  and  salt,  make 
as  moist  with  white  sauce  as  a  chicken  croquette,  form 
into  balls,  let  cool,  roll  in  egg  and  fine  bread  crumbs,  and 
fry  in  deep  fat.  These  are  very  nice  moistened  with  a 
tomato  sauce  instead  of  a  white  sauce. 

To  Saute  Meat  Croquettes. 

Either  meat  or  rice  and  meat  croquettes  may  be  made 
into  flat  cakes,  rolled  in  egg,  then  in  bread  crumbs,  and 
sauted  in  clarified  butter  or  bacon  fat.  Brown  nicely  on 
each  side  and  serve  hot. 

Eice  and  Sausage  Hash. 

Mix  together  equal  parts  of  cold  sausage  and  cold 
boiled  rice.  Mix  with  this  enough  unseasoned  white 
sauce  or  left-over  gravy  to  make  it  cling  together.  Butter 
the  omelet  pan,  and  dust  with  bread  crumbs.  Place  in 
this  the  hash,  press  down  with  a  knife,  and  cover.  When 
it  is  brown  on  the  bottom,  and  thoroughly  heated  through, 
fold  like  an  omelet,  turn  onto  a  warm  platter,  and  serve 
hot. 
Potato  Hash. 

Finely  hashed  cold  boiled  potatoes,  seasoned  with  salt, 
pepper,  parsley,  and  onions,  if  desired.  To  this  add 


MISCELLANEOUS.  487 

enough  white  sauce  or  cold  gravy  to  make  the  particles 
cling  together,  but  not  enough  to  make  a  mushy  mass. 
Put  into  an  omelet  pan  prepared  as  for  sausage  hash  and 
cook  in  the  same  way.  Or  use  as  much  stale  diced  bread 
as  you  have  potatoes,  put  together,  and  cook  as  potato 
hash. 

Fish  Hash. 

Melt  a  tablespoonful  of  butter  in  a  saucepan,  add  one 
cup  of  water  or  milk,  and  two  cups  of  any  kind  of  cold 
fresh  fish,  freed  from  skin  and  bones,  and  picked  into 
small  pieces.  Season  to  taste,  simmer  five  minutes,  and 
serve  on  slices  of  dipped  toast.  Hard-boiled  eggs  may  al- 
ways be  added  to  hashed  fish,  also  a  flavoring  of  minced 
parsley,  if  liked.  Any  fish  sauce  left  over  from  a  previous 
meal  may  be  used  instead  of  milk  or  water  for  moistening 
the  hash. 

Family  Hash. 

To  prepare  the  spider  for  hash,  grease  well,  and  cover 
lightly  with  bread  crumbs.  If  meat  is  tough,  simmer  until 
tender.  Mix  chicken,  veal,  and  sweetbreads,  but  better 
not  have  lamb  or  mutton.  Use  more  potato  than  meat, 
season  well,  and  moisten  with  gravy  or  white  sauce,  and 
cook  fifteen  minutes,  or  long  enough  to  form  a  nice  brown 
crust  at  bottom. 

Hash  Cakes. 

One  cup  of  cold,  hashed  meat,  one  cup  of  cold  mashed 
potatoes,  one  egg,  beaten  light.  Mix  all  together,  season 
to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper,  form  into  balls  or  cakes,  and 
brown  in  a  hot  frying  pan  containing  a  little  fat  of  some 
kind. 

Beef  Hash  in  Tomato  Cups. 

Use  cold  beef,  hashed  quite  fine,  and  cold  hashed,  boil- 
ed potatoes  in  equal  parts.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper, 
and  a  little  butter.  Wash  and  wipe  firm,  ripe  tomatoes. 
Cut  them  in  half,  and  take  out  the  inside,  and  fill  the  shell 


488  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

with  hash.     Cover  the  top  with  buttered  crumbs,  and  bake 
in  a  dripping  pan  in  a  medium  hot  oven,  until  hash  is  hot. 

Turkey  and  Oyster  Hash. 

Cut  cold  boiled  or  roast  turkey  into  pieces  as  large  as 
medium-sized  oysters.  Use  turkey  or  chicken  broth.  Put 
two  or  more  cups  of  the  prepared  meat  into  a  saucepan, 
and  enough  of  the  broth  to  cover  it.  Set  on  the  back  of 
the  range,  and  let  simmer  until  tender.  Cook  in  another 
saucepan  two  tablespoonfuls  each  of  butter  and  flour  until 
well  mixed,  but  not  brown.  Add  two  cups  of  the  turkey 
broth,  and  let  simmer  five  minutes.  Add  a  pint  of  oys- 
ters, rinsed  and  drained.  Stir  gently  with  a  wooden 
spoon,  and  as  soon  as  the  edges  curl  and  separate  add  the 
turkey  meat,  season  to  taste,  and  serve  with  or  without 
toast. 

Hashed  Brown  Potatoes. 

Scatter  one  teaspoonful  of  bread  crumbs  over  a  buttered 
omelet  pan  before  putting  the  potatoes  into  it.  Use  white 
sauce  to  moisten  the  potatoes,  but  do  not  make  too  moist, 
season  with  salt  and  pepper.  Fry  until  brown  on  the  bot- 
tom, and  fold  like  an  omelet. 

Apple  Toast, 

Toast  slices  of  bread  a  nice  brown.  Make  an  apple 
sauce,  and  put  a  layer  of  buttered  toast  into  the  dish, 
cover  with  apple  sauce,  then  put  in  another  layer,  and 
cover  it.  Let  the  toast  and  apple  sauce  both  be  hot  when- 
put  together,  and  serve  hot. 

Egg  Toast. 

Cut  slices  of  stale  bread  about  half  an  inch  thick,  and 
toast  a  delicate  brown.  Pour  boiling  water  into  a  shallow 
basin,  dip  the  toast  in  this  water,  turn  over,  lay  on  a  warm 
plate,  and  spread  with  butter.  Chop  hard-boiled  eggs, 
sprinkle  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  spread  over  the  toast. 

Riced  Egg  on  Toast. 

Prepare  the  toast  as  above.  Shell  the  egg,  put  in  a, 
potato  ricer,  and  squeeze  over  the  top  of  the  toast. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  489 

Dry  Toast. 

Cut  slices  of  dry  bread  about  half  an  inch  thick.  Dry 
the  surface  somewhat,  either  in  the  oven  or  over  the  fire, 
before  the  slice  is  browned.  Toast  should  be  of  a  golden 
brown  color  on  the  outside,  and  crisp  and  dry.  Fresh 
bread  which  is  carbonized  on  the  outside,  and  clammy 
within,  is  not  what  a  wise  person  would  call  toast,  or  offer 
to  his  stomach  when  it  needed  toast. 

Tomato  Toast. 

Strain  two-thirds  of  a  cup  of  tomato,  and  put  to  heat  in 
a  graniteware  saucepan;  when  hot,  turn  into  a  bowl,  rinse 
the  saucepan,  and  wipe  dry.  Then  put  into  it  one  table- 
spoonful  of  butter  and  the  same  of  flour.  Stir  the 
flour  and  butter  together  as  they  heat,  and  do  not  allow 
to  brown.  To  this  add  half  a  cup  of  whole  milk,  and  let 
cook  until  it  thickens.  Season  both  this  and  the  tomato 
with  salt  and  pepper.  Add  the  tomato  to  the  white  sauce, 
pouring  slowly,  and  stirring  constantly,  and  as  soon -as 
mixed  pour  over  nicely  toasted  slices  of  bread,  and  serve. 

Meat  Souffle. 

Make  one-half  a  cup  of  white  sauce,  and  season  same 
as  for  hash.  Stir  into  it  one-half  cup  of  chopped  meat, 
— chicken,  tongue,  veal,  or  lamb.  Make  boiling  hot,  and 
stir  into  it  the  beaten  yolk  of  one  egg.  Let  cool,  and  when 
cold  stir  in  the  white  of  the  egg,  beaten  stiff.  Bake  in  a 
buttered  dish  slowly  until  done,  and  serve  in  the  dish  in 
which  it  was  cooked.  The  souffle  may  be  seasoned  with 
parsley  and  onion,  in  addition  to  the  salt  and  pepper,  if 
desired.  All  seasonings  should  be  stirred  into  the  white 
sauce  before  it  is  added  to  the  meat.  The  souffle  may 
be  served  with  mushroom  sauce. 

Meat  Souffle— Class  Rule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  white  sauce,  one-fourth  cup  of  chop- 
ped meat,  one-half  egg  yolk  (well  beaten),  one-half  egg 
white  (well  beaten).  Make  and  bake  same  as  directed 
in  home  rule. 


490  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Escalloped  Beef. 

Cut  cold  roast  beef  or  steak  into  dice,  and  cook  slowly 
in  a  very  small  amount  of  water  until  tender.  Cook  to- 
gether, until  brown,  one-half  tablespoonful  each  of  butter 
and  flour,  and  add  one-half  cup  of  soup  stock  or  water 
from  the  roasting  pan,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  strained 
tomato.  Pour  over  the  meat  in  the  dish  in  which  it  is  to 
be  served  enough  to  make  quite  moist,  cover  with  but- 
tered crumbs,  and  bake  in  the  oven. 

Escalloped  Beef  With  Macaroni. 

One-fourth  cup  of  cold  beef,  cut  into  dice,  one-fourth 
cup  of  macaroni,  cut  into  inch  lengths,  one-half  cup  of 
strained  tomato,  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  flour,  two  level 
teaspoonfuls  of  butter.  Make  into  a  sauce,  and  season. 
Pour  the  sauce  over  the  beef  and  macaroni.  Mix  together 
and  boil  up.  Put  into  a  shallow  baking  dish,  cover  with 
buttered  crumbs,  and  brown  in  the  oven. 

Frizzled  Beef. 

Place  one  tablespoonful  of  butter  in  a  frying  pan,  and 
when  hot,  not  browned,  put  in  one-half  pint  of  dried  beef, 
sliced  very  thin.  Cook  a  few  minutes  over  a  hot  fire,  so 
the  beef  will  curl  up,  then  dredge  over  it  one  and  one- 
half  tablespoonfuls  of  flour.  Stir  and  let  brown  slightly, 
then  pour  in  one-half  pint  of  sweet  milk,  and  cook  till  it 
thickens.  Pepper  to  taste.  Serve  on  toast,  or  without 
toast. 

Escalloped  Mutton. 

Prepare  in  same  way  as  escalloped  beef,  except  leave 
out  the  tomatoes,  and  use  more  mutton  broth  in  their  place. 

Cubes  of  Veal  in  Mushroom  Sauce. 

One  cup  of  veal  cubes,  one-half  cup  of  mushrooms,  one 
hard-boiled  egg,  one  level  teaspoon ful  of  butter,  one  level 
teaspoonful  of  flour,  one-half  cup  of  milk,  one-half  cup  of 
veal  broth.  Make  a  white  sauce.  Season  to  taste,  add  the 
veal  and  chopped  egg,  and  serve  hot. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  491 

Creamed  Hamburg  on  Toast. 

One-half  cup  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  flour,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  butter,  one- fourth  cup  (scant)  chopped,  fresh 
meat.  Heat  the  butter  and  flour  together,  and  pour  the 
cold  milk  over  it.  Cook  four  or  five  minutes,  stirring  all 
the  time,  and  add  the  meat.  Let  boil,  and  serve. 

Creamed  Codfish  With  Evaporated  Cream. 

One  tablespoonful  of  butter,  two  tablespoonfuls  flour, 
one  cup  shredded  codfish,  stirred  in  one  cup  of  cold  water, 
and  drained.  Use  in  sauce  one-half  cup  of  evaporated 
cream,  and  one-half  cup  of  water.  Heat  butter  and  flour 
together,  pour  the  liquid  over  it.  Cook  four  or  five  min- 
utes, stirring  constantly,  and  add  the  codfish.  Boil,  and 
serve. 

Codfish  Balls. 

Soak  the  codfish,  and  prepare  the  same  as  for  creamed 
codfish.  Take  two  measures  of  mashed  potato  to  one 
of  the  prepared  codfish.  Mix  the  codfish  and  potato, 
break  an  egg  into  this,  beat  with  a  spoon  until  thoroughly 
mixed,  form  into  balls  and  fry  in  deep  fat. 

Pressed  Chicken. 

Boil  a  fowl  in  as  little  water  as  possible  until  the  gristly 
portions  are  soft,  and  the  bones  slip  out.  Remove  all 
objectionable  portions,  and  chop  the  two  pounds  of 
veal,  which  has  been  boiled  with  the  fowl.  Butter  a  dish, 
and  spread  in  a  thin  layer  over  the  bottom,  the  hashed  veal, 
which  has  been  seasoned  and  mixed  with  a  portion  of  the 
chicken  stock,  boiled  down  one-fourth.  Put  in  strips,  al- 
ternately, of  the  white  and  dark  meat  portions  of  the 
chicken,  and  thin  slices  of  ham  and  red  tongue.  Put  in 
another  layer  of  hash,  and  alternate  with  the  strips  of 
meat,  hard-boiled  eggs,  cut  lengthwise,  and  laid  cut  side 
down.  Lastly  put  on  a  layer  of  hash.  Set  away  to  cool 
with  a  weight  on  the  dish. 


492  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Chicken  Terrapin. 

One  pint  of  chicken,  diced,  or  one  and  one-half  pints,  if 
minced,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one  level  table- 
spoonful  of  flour,  one-fourth  cup  of  cream,  one- fourth  cup 
of  chicken  broth  or  milk,  giblets  of  chicken,  minced  fine, 
one-eighth  of  teaspoonful  of  mace,  cloves,  and  red  pepper, 
all  powdered,  and  about  equal  parts,  one-half  tablespoon- 
ful of  lemon  juice  and  currant  jelly,  mixed,  three  drops  of 
extract  of  lemon.  Mix  the  seasoning  with  the  flour. 
Make  the  white  sauce,  mix  the  meat  with  it,  and  let  boil. 
Serve  on  toast. 

Eggs  in  Anchovy  Sauce. 

One  cup  of  milk,  two  level  tablespoon fuls  of  flour,  two 
level  tablespoonfuls  of  butter.  Make  a  white  sauce.  Use 
one  teaspoonful  to  three  of  anchovy  paste,  as  liked. 
Moisten  toast  with  milk,  mix  the  paste  with  the  white 
sauce,  lay  the  sliced  eggs  on  the  toast,  and  pour  the  sauce 
over  it. 

Creamed  Eggs. 

Cook  two  hard-boiled  eggs,  cut  whites  in  half,  remove 
yolks,  and  set  these  small  cups  on  a  platter.  Mash  the 
yolks,  and  add  to  them  one-third  as  much  seasoned  bread 
crumbs,  moisten  with  white  sauce,  shape  into  balls  with 
spoon,  and  place  a  ball  in  each  white  cup.  Pour  the 
white  sauce  on  and  around  them  on  the  platter,  cover  with 
seasoned  bread  crumbs,  set  in  oven,  and  brown.  Serve  on 
the  platter  on  which  they  are  baked. 

White  sauce:  One  teaspoonful  butter,  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  flour,  one-half  cup  milk,  cooked  together. 

Timbales. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  one  cup  of  milk,  one 
egg,  well  beaten,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,  stir  until 
thoroughly  mixed.  To  fry  the  timbales,  put  the  batter 
into  a  teacup,  heat  the  timbale  iron  in  the  fat,  and  when 
hot  enough  to  cause  the  batter  to  adhere,  lower  the  iron 
into  the  cup  of  batter  to  within  one-half  inch  of  the  top, 


MISCELLANEOUS.  493 

then  put  into  the  hot  fat,  and  fry  until  the  cup  slips  from 
the  iron. 

Minced  chicken,  turkey,  or  veal  with  white  sauce  are 
good  to  fill  the  timbale  cups.  To  make  a  large  timbale, 
butter  a  dish,  and  line  it  with  cooked  rice,  then  put  in  the 
minced  meat,  and  bake  until  the  rice  is  a  nice  brown.  A 
tomato  sauce  may  be  used  with  the  meat  (in  this  case) 
instead  of  the  white  sauce. 

Deviled  Meats. 

Deviled  meats  are  like  scalloped  meats,  except  they  are 
more  highly  seasoned,  and .  cut  finer. 

Giblets  With  Mushrooms. 

Cook  chicken  giblets,  and  chop  them,  or  cut  into  dice. 
Make  a  brown  sauce  (page  517)  of  chicken  or  veal  broth, 
with  the  mushroom  liquor  added  from  half  a  can  of  mush- 
rooms. Put  the  giblets  and  mushrooms  in,  let  it  boil, 
season,  and  serve. 

Mock  Pate  de  Fois  Gras. 

One  calf's  liver,  one  calf's  tongue,  one  teaspoonful 
of  cayenne  pepper,  one-fourth  of  a  nutmeg,  one-half  tea- 
spoonful  of  cloves,  one  teaspoonful  Worcestershire  sauce, 
one  teaspoonful  of  onion  juice.  Cook  the  liver  in  boiling 
salted  water  until  tender,  let  cool  and  grate.  Mix  the 
seasoning  with  the  liver,  mashing  it  very  fine.  Put  in 
a  dish  alternate  layers  of  liver  and  tongue,  cut  in  small, 
thin  slices  to  resemble  truffles. 
Turkish  Pilaf . 

Strained  and  seasoned  tomato,  one  cup ;  stock,  one  cup ; 
rice,  two-thirds  cup;  butter,  one-half  cup;  salt,  one  tea- 
spoonful  ;  pepper,  one-fourth  teaspoonful.  Cook  one  pint 
of  tomatoes  with  one  small  chopped  onion,  one  sprig  of 
parsley,  two  cloves,  and  two  pepper  corns  ten  rriinuteS, 
and  strain.  This  gives  the  one  cup  of  tomato.  Wash  the 
rice  through  three  waters,  and  put  in  top  of  double  boiler. 
Add  stock,  tomato,  salt,  and  pepper.  Steam  one  hour,  or 
until  the  rice  is  Render  and  dry.  Put  the  butter  in  bits  on 


494  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

top.    Do  not  stir,  but  cover  with  a  towel,  let  stand  to  ab- 
sorb all  moisture  (ten  minutes),  and  serve. 

Stuffed  Onions. 

Remove  the  husks  from  medium-sized,  perfect  onions. 
Cut  off  about  one-third  of  the  onions  at  the  top,  and  re- 
move the  inner  part,  leaving  only  a  shell  or  cup.  Fill  this 
with  finely  hashed  meat  and  potato,  in  equal  parts,  sea- 
soned with  pepper  and  salt,  and  moistened  with  cold 
gravy.  Cover  the  top  with  bread  crumbs  seasoned 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter.  Place  in  a  dripping  pan, 
and  bake  in  not  too  hot  an  oven  until  the  onion  is  soft, 
but  not  cooked  enough  to  mush  or  break.  Serve  hot  for 
luncheon  or  supper. 

Stale  Bread  Griddle  Cakes. 

Use  crusts  and  ends  of  bread  for  this.  Put  the  stale 
bread  in  a  bowl,  and  pour  over  it  as  much  hot  sweet  milk 
as  it  will  absorb.  Let  stand  over  night,  then  mash 
through  the  colander,  and  add  half  as  much  flour  as  there 
is  pulp,  and  mix  as  other  griddle  cakes  with  sweet  milk. 
To  make  with  soda,  soak  the  bread  in  buttermilk,  and 
proceed  as  for  griddle  cakes  with  soda. 

Stale  Bread  Griddle  Cakes— Class  Rule. 

One  cup  of  coarse  bread  crumbs,  one-half  cup  of  milk, 
one-fourth  cup  of  flour,  one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  baking 
powder,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  fat  (butter  or  lard),  one 
teaspoonful  of  beaten  egg.  Pour  the  cold  milk  over  the 
crumbs  and  let  soak  until  soft,  then  press  through  a 
puree  sieve.  Add  the  flour,  salt,  shortening  and  egg  and 
beat  well  with  the  spoon,  then  add  the  baking  powder  in 
a  teaspoonful  of  saved-out  flour.  If  sour  milk  is  used, 
add  one- fourth  teaspoonful  of  soda  instead  of  baking 
powder  with  the  teaspoonful  of  flour. 
Left-Over  Meat  Sauce. 

Sauce  for  reheating  dark  meats :  Sweet  corn,  strained 
tomatoes,  and  clear  soup  in  equal  quantities  form  a  basis 
for  a  brown  sauce  for  reheating  dark  meats.  Strain 


MISCELLANEOUS.  495 

sauce  before  using,  then  cut  into  it  hard-boiled  eggs,  as 
liked.    Thicken  the  sauce  as  for  creamed  potatoes. 

Tomato  Sauce. 

One  cup  of  strained  tomato,  one  tablespoonful  butter, 
one  tablespoonful  flour.     Heat  the  butter  and  flour  to- 
gether, pour  in  the  cold  tomatoes,  and  cook  four  or  five 
minutes. 
Sauce  for  Escalloped  Dishes. 

One-fourth  cup  of  whole  milk,  one  teaspoonful  of  flour, 
two  teaspoonfuls  of  butter.  Make  sauce  of  these,  and 
season  to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Escalloped  Chicken,  etc. 

One-fourth  cup  of  chicken  or  veal  cut  in  small  dice, 
one-eighth  cup  of  cooked  egg  (left  over  in  whatever  man- 
ner cooked),  cut  equally  fine,  one-eighth  of  a  cup  of 
cooked  rice.  Add  to  the  sauce,  boil  up,  and  serve  on 
dipped  toast. 

Horseradish  Sauce. 

Two  tablespoonfuls  of  horseradish,  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  fine  bread  crumbs,  one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar.  Heat 
all  together,  and  season  with  salt  and  pepper. 

Made  Mustard  for  Gold  Meats. 

Best  mustard,  one  and  one-half  level  tablespoonfuls; 
sugar,  one  level  tablespoonful ;  salt,  one-half  teaspoonful ; 
vinegar,  one-fourth  cup;  butter,  one  teaspoonful.  Mix 
ingredients,  and  cook  until  it  thickens,  then  add  the  yolk 
of  one  egg,  well  beaten,  cool,  and  use. 

Chicken  Pie. 

Pick  the  chicken  from  the  bones  and  cut  into  small 
pieces.  Make  a  sauce  by  using  half  chicken  broth  and 
half  sweet  milk  thickened  with  flour.  Make  a  crust  same 
as  for  shortcake,  line  the  baking  dish  with  the  crust,  fill 
with  paper,  lay  the  upper  crust  on  and  bake ;  when  done, 
remove  the  top  crust  and  take  out  j:he  paper.  Fill  the 
crust  with  hot  chicken  and  sauce,  replace  the  top  crust, 
and  serve. 


496  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Chicken  Pie— Class  Kule. 

One-fourth  cup  of  chicken  cut  in  pieces  as  desired,  one- 
fourth  cup  of  milk  and  one-half  cup  of  broth,  thickened 
with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  flour  mixed  with  two  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  milk,  cook  until  it  thickens,  season  with  salt  and  a 
very  little  pepper,  put  in  the  chicken,  let  come  to  a  boil, 
and  fill  the  crust. 

Children's  Parties, 

Small  children  enjoy  things  which  are  out  of  the  usual 
in  form,  size  and  color.  The  refreshments  for  a  chil- 
dren's party  should  be  simple,  but  attractive  and  palata- 
ble. They  should  consist  of  such  things  as  are  least  lia- 
ble to  disturb  the  digestion,  for  children  exercise  little  dis- 
crimination in  eating.  Oranges  peeled,  divided  into  the 
natural  divisions  and  served  in  orange  baskets,  or  orange 
cups,  afford  the  child  far  more  pleasure  than  do  oranges 
in  their  natural  form. 

A  bird  or  animal  cooky  is  much  better,  to  their  taste, 
than  a  common,  round  one. 

Sandwiches  made  of  bread  cut  very  thin  and  buttered, 
with  a  lettuce  leaf  laid  between  the  slices  so  that  its  green 
color  shows  through  the  thin  slices  and  its  curly  edge 
shows  on  the  border  are  attractive  and  wholesome.  With 
the  aid  of  a  biscuit  cutter  one  can  make  sandwich  moons 
and  crescents  with  little  trouble  and  waste.  A  kitchen 
knife  is  the 'only  tool  necessary  to  enable  one  to  make 
sandwiches  in  the  form  of  stars,  diamonds,  triangles,  etc. 
The  child  enjoys  a  sandwich  made  of  buttered  bread  with 
chopped  nuts  between. 

Either  angel  cake  or  sponge  cake  is  more  wholesome 
than  butter  cake,  and  can  be  made  equally  attractive  by 
frosting  and  decorating  as  desired.  Simply  a  white 
frosting  with  the  name  and  age,  or  the  birth  date  in  col- 
ored letters,  pleases  the  small  child.  This  may  be  done 
by  tracing  the  letters  with  a  colored  frosting,  or  with 
small  colored  candies. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


497 


Butter  cake  mixtures  may  be  baked  in  tiny  pans  and 
dipped  in  frosting.  Cookies  and  ginger  snaps  may  be  cut 
in  fancy  shapes  and  decorated  with  colored  frostings. 
Those  who  object  to  using  the  colors  sold  as  vegetable 


Child's  Breakfast. 

colorings  and  used  for  tinting  candies,  frostings,  etc.,  can 
easily  make  a  sufficient  variety  of  colorings  at  home. 
Green  coloring  can  be  made  by  tying  spinach  leaves  loose- 


498  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

ly  in  cheese  cloth,  placing  the  package  in  a  vegetable  ricer 
and  squeezing.  After  the  juice  is  boiled  to  the  consist- 
ency of  syrup  it  is  ready  for  use.  Pink  coloring  may  be 
obtained  by  boiling  a  mature  beet,  being  sure  that  the  skin 
is  not  broken  in  any  part  and  leaving  the  top  on.  When 
done,  rub  the  skin  off  in  cold  water,  cut  the  beet  into 
bits,  put  through  a  vegetable  ricer  and  then  through 
cheese  cloth,  and  use  same  as  spinach  coloring. 

To  make  yellow  frosting,  put  a  raw  egg  yolk  into  a  cup 
and  put  into  it  four  times  as  much  powdered  sugar  as 
egg  and  beat  until  thick  as  frosting  should  be,  flavor  and 
use. 

Little  souvenirs  may  be  made  into  a  birthday  pie  by 
tying  a  ribbon  with  a  card  bearing  the  name  of  the  child 
for  which  the  trinket  is  intended  attached  to  the  end  of  it. 
These  packages  may  be  placed  in  a  pretty  basket  and  a 
dainty  doily  or  napkin  thrown  over  it.  Let  the  children 
gather  about  the  table  on  which  the  basket  is  placed  and 
have  each  child  find  his  own  piece  of  pie  by  looking  for  a 
card  with  his  name  on  it,  when  each  has  found  his  own 
name  uncover  the  pie  and  let  each  child  pull  out  his  piece 
by  the  ribbon  attached. 

Little  children  find  pleasure  also  in  having  a  play  post- 
office  behind  a  screen  in  a  corner  of  the  room,  where  they 
may  go  and  ask  for  their  special  parcel. 

Popcorn  Balls. 

Pop  a  basin  of  corn.  Remove  all  hard  and  partially 
popped  grains.  Boil  molasses  until  it  will  hair,  pour  it 
over  the  popped  corn,  which  has  been  sprinkled  with 
salt.  Use  only  enough  molasses  to  make  the  corn  stick 
together.  Form  into  balls  or  pack  in  a  pan  greased  with 
butter.  If  packed  in  a  pan,  set  to  cool,  then  turn  out  and 
cut  into  shapes  desired.  One-fourth  as  much  sugar  as 
molasses  and  a  little  butter  may  be  used  in  the  syrup,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  teaspoonful  of  butter  to  one  cup  of 
syrup. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  499 

Tinted  Popcorn  Balls. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  use  white  sugar  instead  of 
molasses  and  color  slightly  with  red  vegetable  coloring. 

Popcorn  Cake. 

Pop  the  corn  and  allow  it  to  become  cold,  then  roll 
with  a  rolling  pin  to  break  the  grains  somewhat,  or  grind 
the  corn  in  coffee  mill,  pour  over  it  a  mixture  prepared 
same  as  for  popcorn  balls,  but  use  a  little  more  than  for 
balls.  Pack  in  a  narrow  pan,  and  when  cold  and  firm, 
slice. 
Popcorn  and  Nut  Cake. 

Make  same  as  popcorn  cake  except  add  one-third  as 
much  chopped  nuts  as  shelled  corn.  Use  hazel  nuts,  pea- 
nuts or  walnuts.  Children  enjoy  plain  popcorn  with  milk 
or  cream. 

Hints  for  Busy  Housekeepers. 

Regularity  with  regard  to  meals  saves  time,  health,  pa- 
tience and  money. 

Success  or  failure  depends  on  the  manner  of  doing  the 
many  small  things  which  form  the  sum  total  of  our 
housework. 

" There  is  no  substitute  for  thorough  going,  for  ardent 
and  sincere  earnestness  in  the  home." — Dickens. 

Vinegar  cruets  should  be  cleaned  inside  by  filling  with 
ammonia  water,  lye  water,  or  with  water  containing  a 
little  baking  soda,  allowing  them  to  soak,  and  then  washing 
well  with  soapsuds. 

Water  bottles  can  be  cleaned  by  filling  with  vinegar, 
allowing  to  soak  well  and  washing  in  soapsuds  and 
wiping  dry  and  polishing  with  a  soft  cloth. 

For  cleaning  the  inside  of  a  glass  lamp  use  lye  or  strong 
soapsuds  and  soak  several  hours.  The  mixture  should  be 
as  hot  as  can  be  used. 

To  prevent  oil  gathering  on  the  outside  of  the  lamp, 
turn  the  wick  below  the  tube  before  setting  the  lamp 
away. 


500  ,          HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  clean  lamp  burners  and  wicks,  boil  in  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  soap,  water,  and  kerosene,  then  rinse  and  wipe 
dry. 

Lamp  flues  may  often  be  successfully  cleaned  by  plac- 
ing the  hand  over  the  lower  end,  blowing  into  the  chim- 
ney, then  wiping  inside  with  a  soft  paper  or  cloth. 

An  old  stiff  tooth  brush  is  useful  in  removing  the 
charred  portion  from  a  lamp  wick. 

Egg  stains  can  be  removed  from  silver  by  rubbing  with 
salt  on  a  damp  cloth. 

Generally   speaking,   the   temperature  of   cold   storage 

ms  is  about  34°  F. 
lender  fruits  to  be  kept  in  cold  storage  for  a  few  days 
should  be  just  ripe;  they  will  keep  better  than  when  un- 
der-ripe.— Siebel. 

Green  fruits  and  vegetables  should  not  be  allowed  to 
wither. 

Sour  fruit  will  bear  less  cold  than  sweet  fruit. 

Frozen  fish  must  necessarily  lose  some  of  their  juices 
in  cooking  and  should  be  used  only  in  the  close  season 
when  fresh  fish  cannot  be  obtained. 

June  butter  is  best,  if  one  must  have  butter  packed  and 
stored. 

Frozen  oysters  should  never  be  used. 

Eggs  to  be  stored  for  use  later  must  be  strictly  fresh, 
all  bad  ones  culled  out  by  candling. 

Eggs  will  absorb  bad  odors  and  should  not  be  stored 
with  cheese  or  other  articles  exhaling  a  strong  odor. 

All  foul  air  in  storage  rooms  must  be  removed  by  ven- 
tilation if  the  best  results  are  secured. 

To  keep  meat  fresh,  hang  in  a  cold,  dry  place  and  allow 
the  air  to  circulate  freely  about  it. 

When  frozen  meat  must  be  used,  it  should  be  thawed 
very  gradually. 

All  green  vegetables  should  be  bright  and  crisp. 

When  buying  eggs  choose  those  which  are  heavy  in 
proportion  to  size. 

Mushrooms  have  a  fine  flavor,  but  small  food  value. 


APPENDIX, 

To  Remove  Onion  Odor  from  Hands. 

Rub  the  hands  thoroughly  with  salt,  then  wash  them 
in  clear  water. 

To  Remove  Stains  from  Egg  Shells. 

When  eggs  have  become  stained  as  they  often  do  from 
lying  in  the  nest  with  damp  hay  or  grass  the  shells  may  be 
made  bright  and  clean  by  soaking  the  egg  over  night  in 
milk,  either  sweet  or  sour,  then  washing  in  clear  water. 

To  Make  Dry  Yeast. 

The  following  formula  makes  two  gallons  of  yeast  be- 
fore dried: 

Put  one  pint  of  loose  hops  in  a  saucepan,  and  pour  one 
pint  of  boiling  water  over  them  and  let  steep  ten  minutes. 
Strain  the  hop  water  and  pour  one  cup  of  it  into  a  bowl, 
and  while  it  is  still  hot  add  iflour  enough  to  make  a  thick 
batter.  Have  the  yeast  ready  and  use  two  cakes  of  com- 
pressed yeast  mixed  with  a  little  water  or  one  whole  pack- 
age of  yeast  foam  soaked  in  water  until  soft.  When  the 
hop  batter  is  just  luke  warm  stir  the  yeast  and  sugar  into 
it,  set  aside  and  let  rise  over  night.  In  the  morning  stir 
into  it  five  freshly  boiled  and  finely  mashed  good  sized 
potatoes  and  a  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Thicken  with  corn 
meal  and  dry  at  once  in  a  current  of  air.  This  yeast  will 
make  very  good  bread  if  used  fresh. 

Fruit  Salpicon. 

Juice  of  one  and  one-half  lemons. 
Pulp  of  two  good  oranges. 
Scant  half  cup  of  sugar. 
Two  cups  of  water  (cold). 

Two  large,  mellow,  fine-flavored  peaches,  pared  and 
cut  in  small  pieces. 


502  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Two  heaping  tablespoonfuls  of  shredded  pineapple. 

Half  a  cup  of  small  green  grapes,  ripe,  of  course,  but 
green  in  color  and  mild  in  flavor.  Malaga  grapes  halved 
and  seeded  are  most  excellent,  but  too  large  to  use  whole. 

A  fourth  of  a  cup  of  strawberry  juice  may  be  added 
and  two  or  three  fine  strawberries  served  in  each  cup  if 
desired.  When  this  is  done  the  grapes  shoud  be  omitted. 
Put  the  ingredients  together  and  let  stand  in  a  cold  place 
over  night  but  do  not  allow  to  freeze.  Serve  in  sherbet 
cups  or  scoop  small  canteloupes  and  serve  the  salpicon  in 
the  shells  set  on  a  grape  leaf  placed  on  a  small  plate. 

Raspberry  Sponge  Cake. 

Three  whole  eggs  beaten  separately,  one  cup  of  sugar, 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water,  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vin- 
egar, one-fourth  teaspoonful  of  salt,  two  level  teaspoon- 
fuls baking  powder,  one  cup  flour.  Beat  yolks  of  eggs 
until  thick  and  lemon  colored ;  add  the  sugar,  and  beat  it 
in  with  a  spoon;  add  vinegar  and  water  and  salt,  and 
stir  until  mixed;  then  add  all  except  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  flour,  and  beat  until  well  mixed;  then  add  remainder 
of  flour  and  baking  powder,  mixed  well.  Bake  in  pie 
tins,  in  two  or  three  layers.  Bake  in  a  moderate  oven 
until  done,  but  not  shrunken. 
Filling  for  Raspberry  Sponge  Cake. 

Put  two  cups  of  ripe  red  raspberries  into  a  bowl,  and 
add  to  them  one-fourth  cup  of  red  currants  washed  and 
stemmed;  add  enough  sugar  to  sweeten,  and  mash  and 
stir  all  together.  Let  set  half  an  hour,  and  spread  be- 
tween layers  and  over  top  of  cake  just  before  serving. 
Serve  without  cream. 
Plain  Cake — Chocolate  Frosting. 

One-fourth  cup  of  butter,  one  and  one-half  level  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one-half  cup  of  sugar,  one 
egg,  one-half  cup  of  milk,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  flour. 
Cream  the  butter  by  stirring  until  soft  and  pliable;  then 
add  the  sugar  a  little  at  a  time,  and  stir  until  the  mixture 


APPENDIX.  503 

is  perfectly  light  and  white;  break  the  egg  into  this,  and 
stir  until  well  mixed;  then  add  a  little  flour,  and  stir 
until  incorporated;  add  a  little  milk,  and  treat  in  same 
way  until  all  are  used,  except  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour ; 
mix  the  baking  powder  thoroughly  with  this,  and  stir  it 
in  last.  Put  into  a  shallow  greased  pan,  and  bake  thirty 
minutes  in  a  moderate  oven. 

Chocolate  Frosting. 

Boil  one  cup  of  sugar  with  one-half  cup  of  water  to 
the  hairing  stage.  Put  one  and  one-half  squares  of  grated 
chocolate  into  a  bowl,  and  set  over  the  hot  teakettle  (re- 
moving cover)  when  the  syrup  is  put  to  cook,  that  it 
may  be  melted  when  syrup  has  reached  the  hairing  stage. 
When  syrup  is  ready,  take  from  the  fire,  and  pour  over  the 
melted  chocolate,  and  stir  until  thoroughly  mixed.  Con- 
tinue stirring  until  of  right  consistency  for  spreading  over 
the  cake ;  then  flavor  with  vanilla,  and  pour  quickly  on 
cake. 

Nut  Custard  Cake. 

One-fourth  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  sugar,  two  egg 
whites  or  one  whole  egg,  one-half  cup  of  milk,  one  and 
two-thirds  cups  of  flour,  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  baking 
powder.  Stir  the  butter  in  a  cup  until  soft  and  pliable; 
then  add  sugar,  a  little  at  a  time,  and  continue  to  stir 
until  the  whole  becomes  light  and  white;  add  one  egg 
whole,  and  stir  until  thoroughly  incorporated;  then  add 
a  little  milk,  and  thoroughly  mix;  then  a  little  flour,  and 
incorporate  that ;  then  add  the  other  egg,  and,  when  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  dough,  add  a  little  milk,  and  so 
continue  until  all  except  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls  of  flour 
have  been  used;  mix  the  baking  powder  with  this,  and 
put  it  in  last,  and  stir  well.  Have  ready  one  cup  of  nut 
kernels  cut  in  pieces  (hickory  nuts,  pecan  nuts,  or  Eng- 
lish walnuts),  and  stir  half  of  them  into  the  cake  dough. 
Bake  the  cake  in  layers  in  a  moderately  hot  oven.  When 


504  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

done  and  cooled  a  little,  spread  the  following  mixture  be- 
tween layers: 

Custard  Nut  Filling  for  Cake. 

One  egg  white,  one  cup- of  sweet  milk,  two  level  table- 
spoonfuls  of  cornstarch,  mixed  with  an  equal  amount  of 
milk  or  cream.  Put  the  milk  to  heat,  and  add  to  it  six 
level  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar.  Heat  to  boiling  point,  and 
pour  over  the  moistened  starch,  pouring  slowly  and  stir- 
ring to  prevent  lumping.  Return  to  the  fire,  and  cook 
a  few  minutes  after  it  reaches  the  boiling  point;  then 
pour  it  over  the  beaten  egg  white,  carefully  folding  it 
in;  add  the  nuts,  and  spread  between  the  layers  of  cake. 
Four  level  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  instead  of  the  two  of 
corn  starch  may  be  used  in  making  this  filling,  if  desired. 

Yellow  Cake. 

One-fourth  cup  of  butter,  three-fourths  cup  of  sugar, 
one-fourth  cup  of  milk,  scant  cup  of  flour,  one  and  one-half 
teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder,  one-half  cup  of  egg  yolks 
(five  medium-sized  eggs  usually),  one  teaspoonful  of  ex- 
tract, lemon  and  vanilla  in  equal  parts.  Put  the  measured 
butter  into  a  teacup,  and  stir  with  a  fork  until  it  is  soft 
and  pliable;  then  add  a  little  sugar,  and  stir  well;  then 
a  little  more,  and  so  continue  until  all  is  used  and  the 
mixture  is  light  and  white.  Beat  the  egg  yolks  until  light 
as  possible;  then  add  them  to  the  sugar  and  butter,  and 
stir  well ;  add  milk  and  flour  alternately,  thoroughly  incor- 
porating each  portion  before  adding  another ;  add  the  ex- 
tract, and  beat  that  into  the  dough ;  then  add  baking  pow- 
der which  has  been  thoroughly  mixed  with  two  table- 
spoonfuls  of  flour  which  have  been  saved  out.  Bake  in 
a  moderate  oven. 

White  Cake. 

One-third  cup  of  butter,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one-half  cup 
of  milk,  one  and  three-fourths  cups  of  flour,  two  teaspoon- 
fuls baking  powder,  one-half  cup  of  egg  whites  (the  whites 


APPENDIX.  505 

of  about  five  eggs),  one-half  teaspoonful  extract  of  al- 
mond. Cream  the  butter  and  sugar  by  stirring  the  but- 
ter until  soft  and  pliable,  using  a  teacup  and  a  fork ;  then 
add  a  little  sugar,  and  stir  it  well  into  it;  then  add  a  lit- 
tle more,  and  so  continue  until  all  is  used ;  add  a  little  milk, 
and  stir  until  mixed ;  then  add  a  little  flour,  and  stir  it  in, 
and  so  continue  until  all  the  milk  is  used,  and  all  except  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  flour.  Mix  baking  powder  thorough- 
ly with  remaining  flour,  and  let  all  set  while  the  cold  egg 
whites  are  beaten  very  light;  now  stir  the  extract  thor- 
oughly through  the  dough;  then  add  flour  with  baking 
powder,  and  stir  that  into  it;  then  carefully  fold  the  egg 
whites  into  the  dough,  stirring  barely  enough  to  mix, 
so  that  no  egg  will  lie  in  bunches,  but  no  more.  Much 
stirring  may  make  the  cake  heavy.  Bake  forty-five  min- 
utes in  a  moderate  oven, -if  put  into  a  brick-shaped  bread 
tin. 

One-Egg  Cake— To  be  Used  Fresh. 

One  cup  of  sugar,  one  level  tablespoonful  of  butter,  one- 
half  cup  of  sweet  milk,  one  cup  of  flour,  one  egg,  two 
level  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder.  Rub  the  butter 
with  a  small  portion  of  the  sugar ;  then  mix  with  the  re- 
maining sugar ;  add  the  milk  and  flour  alternately,  beating 
well,  until  half  of  each  is  used;  then  add  the  egg  without 
beating,  and  stir  until  it  is  thoroughly  incorporated ;  then 
add  remainder  of  milk  and  flour. 

Six-Egg  Cake.  ^ 

One-half  cup  of  butter,  one  and  one-half  cups  of  sugar, 
one-half  cup  of  milk,  three-fourths  cup  of  egg  whites 
(about  six  medium-sized  eggs  make  this  amount),  two 
and  one-half  cups  of  flour,  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  bak- 
ing powder,  one-half  teaspoonful  of  almond  and  lemon 
extract  mixed  equally.  Stir  the  butter  until  soft  and 
pliable  before  adding  any  sugar.  Put  butter  into  a  teacup, 
and  stir  with  a  fork.  When  the  butter  is  soft,  add  a  little 
sugar,  and  stir  well ;  then  add  a  little  more,  and  so  con- 
tinue until  the  mixture  is  light  and  white  and  one  cup  of 


506  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

sugar  has  been  used.  Mix  remainder  of  sugar  with  flour. 
Add  a  little  milk,  and  stir  it  well  into  butter ;  then  add  a 
little  flour,  and  stir  that  well  into  it,  and  so  continue  until 
all  the  milk  has  been  used  and  all  the  flour  except  two 
tablespoonfuls  saved  out  for  the  baking  powder.  Mix 
baking  powder  well  with  the  little  flour,  and  set  aside. 
Beat  the  egg  whites  until  light.  Stir  the  extract  into  the 
dough,  then  beat  the  baking  powder  into  it,  and  lastly  fold 
the  beaten  whites  carefully  into  the  mixture.  Put  into  a 
brick-shaped  bread  tin,  and  bake  forty-five  minutes.  The 
above  cake  may  be  made  by  using  three  whole  eggs  in- 
stead of  six  whites,  and  putting  together  as  directed  for 
"Cheap  Fruit  Cake." 

Cheap  Fruit  Cake. 

One-half  cup  of  butter,  two  cups  of  sugar,  four  whole 
eggs,  one  cup  of  milk,  three  and  one-half  cups  of  flour, 
one  and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder,  one-half 
teaspoonful  of  ground  cinnamon,  one-half  teaspoonful 
ground  mace  or  grated  nutmeg,  one  cup  of  chopped  figs, 
one-half  cup  of  raisins  seeded  and  chopped,  one  table- 
spoonful  of  molasses  (mix  with  milk).  Cream  the  but- 
ter with  one  cup  of  the  sugar  by  first  stirring  the  butter 
in  a  teacup  until  soft  and  pliable ;  then  add  a  little  sugar, 
and  when  mixed  add  a  little  more,  and  so  continue  until 
the  mixture  is  white  and  light.  Mix  remainder  of  sugar 
and  the  spices  with  the  flour.  Take  out  two  tablespoon- 
fuls of  plain  flour,  and  mix  baking  powder  with  it.  Roll 
the  fruit  in  the  flour,  and  put  aside.  Break  an  egg  into  the 
mixture,  and  stir  until  thoroughly  incorporated ;  then  add 
a  little  flour,  and  stir  until  well  mixed.  Continue  this 
until  flour,  milk,  and  eggs  are  all  used ;  then  stir  the  fruit 
into  the  dough ;  and  lastly,  add  the  bit  of  flour  with  baking 
powder,  and  stir  until  thoroughly  mixed.  Bake  in  a  loaf 
fortv-five  minutes. 


APPENDIX.  507 

Cheap  Sponge  Cake. 

Two  eggs  beaten  light.  Into  this  beat  one  cup  of  sugar, 
beating  until  the  mixture  is  again  light.  Stir  in  one 
cup  of  flour,  with  which  has  been  sifted  two  level  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  baking  powder  and  one-fourth  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt.  Add  one-half  teaspoonful  of  lemon  ex- 
tract and  one-half  a  cupful  of  boiling  water.  Stir  as  lit- 
tle as  possible,  and  have  the  batter  smooth.  Turn  imme- 
diately into  a  previously  greased  cake  pan,  and  put  at 
once  into  a  moderately  hot  oven.  Bake  forty  to  forty-five 
minutes.  If  baked  too  rapidly,  the  cake  will  be  tough,, 
and  not  rise  properly. 
Banana  Cake. 

Two  eggs  beaten  light,  one  cup  of  sugar  beaten  with 
the  eggs  until  all  is  light,  one  cup  of  flour;  sift  with  the 
flour  two  level  teaspoonfuls  of  baking  powder  and  one- 
fourth  of  a  teaspoonful  of  salt;  one-third  of  a  cup  of 
sweet  milk.  Beat  the  flour  and  milk  alternately  into  the 
egg  and  sugar  mixture.  Bake  in  three  layers  in  an  oven 
a  very  little  hotter  than  for  sponge  cake. 
Filling  for  Banana  Cake.. 

Boil  one  cup  of  sugar  and  one-half  a  cup  of  water  until 
it  makes  a  very  soft  ball  when  dropped  in  cold  water; 
then  pour  slowly  over  the  beaten  white  of  one  egg,  beat- 
ing constantly  while  pouring,  and  continue  beating  until 
cool  enough  to  spread  on  the  cake.  Spread  on. the  top 
of  the  bottom  layer,  and  cover  with  sliced  bananas;  put 
on  the  next  layer,  and  treat  it  in  the  same  way;  put  on 
the  third  layer,  and  cover  the  top  in  the  same  manner. 
This  cake  should  be  used  fresh,  as  the  fruit  discolors  if 
allowed  to  stand. 
Ice  Cream — Chocolate  Sauce. 

One  pint  of  fresh  milk,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one  egg,  one 
tablespoon  of  flour  (level),  one-half  teaspoonful  of  salt,, 
one  quart  of  thin  cream,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  vanilla.  Mix 
sugar  and  salt  with  the  flour.  Put  one  cup  of  milk  to- 


508  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

heat,  and  add  the  other  to  the  flour  and  sugar  mixture, 
and  stir  well.  When  the  milk  is  hot,  add  sugar  and  milk 
mixture,  and  let  boil  a  little.  Have  the  egg  beaten,  and 
pour  hot  liquid  over  it,  pouring  slowly  and  stirring  to 
prevent  cooking  egg  in  lumps.  Make  perfectly  cold ;  then 
add  flavoring  and  cream,  and  freeze.  Serve  with  the  fol- 
lowing sauce : 

One  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  corn  starch,  two 
cups  of  sweet  milk,  two  squares  of  grated  chocolate,  two 
eggs,  one  cup  of  sugar,  one  teaspoonful  of  extract  of 
vanilla.  Mix  sugar  and  cornstarch  together,  and  pour 
one  cup  of  milk  over  it,  and  stir  until  mixed.  Heat  the 
other  cup  of  milk,  and  when  boiling  hot  pour  it  over  the 
milk  and  sugar  mixed,  and  return  to  the  fire,  and  let  boil 
a  few  minutes,  stirring  all  the  time.  Remove  from  the 
fire,  and  pour  it  over  the  well-beaten  eggs,  pouring  slowly 
and  stirring  constantly  to  prevent  lumping.  Return  to 
fire,  and  cook  same  as  a  boiled  custard  until  thick,  but  not 
curdled  in  the  least.  Pour  this  boiling  hot  over  the  choc- 
olate, which  has  set  in  a  bowl  over  the  hot  teakettle  while 
other  work  was  done  and  is  now  melted.  Stir  chocolate 
well  through,  and,  when  sauce  has  cooled  a  little,  add 
vanilla  to  it.  Set  where  it  will  be  very  cold  at  serving 
time. 

TTnscalded  Cornmeal  Bread. 

One  and  one-half  cups  of  cornmeal,  one-half  cup  of 
flour,  two  teaspoonfuls  baking  powder  (or  a  generous  half 
teaspoonful  of  soda),  one  cup  of  milk  (sweet  for  baking 
powder,  sour  for  soda),  one  egg  and  two  teaspoonfuls  of 
sugar,  one  generous  teaspoonful  of  salt.  Beat  the  egg; 
add  milk  to  it ;  then  put  the  meal  all  in  except  one-fourth 
of  a  cup.  With  this  mix  salt  and  sugar,  and  soda  or 
baking  powder.  Bake  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an 
hour  in  a  moderately  hot  oven,  and  make  a  good  brown 
color. 


APPENDIX.  509 

Steamed  Fruit  Bread. 

Two  cups  of  graham  flour  or  whole  wheat  flour,  one 
cup  of  milk  (if  sweet,  use  two  generous  teaspoonfuls  of 
baking  powder;  if  sour,  use  half  a  teaspoonful  of  soda). 
Measure  out  half  a  cup  of  English  currants  which  have 
been  previously  cleaned  and  dried.  Seed  and  chop  half 
a  cup  of  raisins.  Take  out  half,  a  cup  of  the  flour,  and 
mix  soda  or  baking  powder  thoroughly  with  it.  Mix  all 
the  chopped  fruit  well  with  the  other  flour.  Put  one 
level  teaspoonful  of  salt  into  the  milk  in  the  mixing  bowl, 
and  stir  the  flour,  with  fruit  in  it,  into  this ;  then  add  the 
flour  containing  soda  or  baking  powder.  Pour  the  mix- 
ture into  a  greased  pudding  mold,  and  steam  three  hours. 
Do  not  allow  to  be  moved  during  the  first  hour  that  it 
cooks.  Have  the  water  boiling  when  the  mold  is  put  in, 
and  do  not  allow  to  stop  boiling  during  the  time  of  cook- 
ing. 

Nut  Loaf  Cake. 

Put  into  a  mixing  bowl  one  cup  of  liquid,  half  milk  and 
half  water;  add  to  this,  half  a  cake  of  compressed  yeast, 
mixed  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  cold  water  and  half  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt.  Stir  white  flour  into  this  until  a  bat- 
ter is  formed,  and  beat  well.  Knead  whole  wheat  flour 
into  this  until  it  ceases  to  adhere  to  hands  or  board.  Put 
it  into  a  greased  bowl,  grease  over  the  top,  and  let  rise' 
three  hours,  keeping  it  at  just  lukewarm  temperature,  or, 
better,  use  a  thermometer,  and  keep  it  at  75°  F.  until 
ready  to  bake.  At  the  end  of  three  hours  it  should  be 
double  its  original  bulk.  Knead  into  it  one  tablespoonful 
of  lard  and  one  of  butter  and  one  of  sugar.  Knead  until 
smooth  (keeping  it  in  the  bowl),  and  add  one  cup  of 
chopped  English  walnut  or  pecan  meats.  Make  into  loaf 
same  as  bread.  Let  rise  until  light,  and  bake. 

Left-Over  Salad. 

One  cup  of  plain  boiled  potatoes  cut  in  thin  slices,  one- 
half  cup  of  salmon  torn  in  small  pieces  and  freed  from 


510  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

objectionable  parts,  one-half  cup  of  hard-boiled  eggs  diced. 
Put  potato,  egg,  and  fish  into  a  mixing  bowl,  and  with  two 
silver  forks  mix  thoroughly  together  carefully,  that  they 
remain  unbroken.  Measure  one  cup  of  cooked  salad  dress- 
ing (page  284),  and  put  it  into  one  teaspoonful  of  mixed 
seasoning  No.  3  (page  286).  Stir  until  well  mixed,  and 
dress  the  salad  with  it.  Let  stand  one  hour  in  a  cool 
place,  that  the  flavors  may  blend;  then  serve  on  cold 
plates  and  on  lettuce  leaves. 

Eggs  in  Rice  Nest. 

Fill  an  escallop  shell  with  cold  boiled  rice,  making 
it  lie  up  light  by  lifting  with  a  fork.  Make  a  nest  in  the 
center  with  a  spoon  or  knife.  Into  this  drop  an  egg,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  break  the  yolk.  Sprinkle  with  seasoned 
bread  crumbs,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven  until  the  egg  is 
cooked  as  desired.  When  removed  from  the  oven,  season 
with  salt  and  pepper,  and  serve  on  the  shell. 

Codfish  Balls  (from  Left-Overs.) 

Put  cold  mashed  potatoes  into  a  bowl,  and  add  one 
chopped  hard-boiled  egg  to  each  cup,  if  you  have  it,  other- 
wise the  potatoes  alone.  Add  to  the  potatoes  a  sufficient 
amount  of  left-over  creamed  codfish  to  moisten  so  that  it 
can  be  formed  into  cakes.  Make  into  cakes,  and  saute 
in  bacon  fat  or  good  drippings.  The  balls  may  be  made 
quite  moist  if  dusted  with  fine  bread  crumbs. 

To  Make  Thickening  of  Milk  and  Flour. 

Measure  the  flour,  add  an  equal  amount  of  cold  milk, 
and  stir  until  smooth ;  then  add  more  milk,  until  it  is 
thin  as  griddle  cake  batter.  Now  add  carefully  a  little 
of  the  liquid  to  be  thickened,  and  when  very  thin,  pour 
slowly  into  the  boiling  liquid,  stirring  rapidly,  and  pour- 
ing slowly. 

Plain  Caper  Sauce. 

Use  mutton  soup  stock  and  thicken  with  water  and 
flour, — one  tablespoonful  of  flour  and  one  tablespoonful 


APPENDIX.  511 

of  water  to  one  cup  of  liquid.  Stir  water  and  flour  to- 
gether in  a  cup  until  smooth ;  then  add  to  the  boiling 
liquid,  and  stir  while  cooking.  Put  in  capers  last,  a  scant 
one-quarter  of  a  cup  to  a  cup  of  liquid.  Serve  with  boiled 
mutton. 

Plain  Parsley  Sauce. 

Make  same  as  above,  except  put  in  one  generous  table- 
spoonful  of  finely  minced  parslev  instead  of  capers.  Serve 
with  boiled  mutton. 

Plain  Egg  Sauce. 

Make  the  sauce  as  directed  for  caper  sauce,  using  mut- 
ton broth  for  the  liquid.  Season  with  salt  and  pepper, 
and  add  one  large  or  two  very  small  hard-boiled  eggs, 
chopped  fine,  in  place  of  capers.  Serve  with  boiled  mut- 
ton. 

Plain  Veal  Pot  Pie. 

Cut  the  veal  in  medium-sized  pieces  and  simmer  in  a 
small  quantity  of  water  for  an  hour.  Always  choose  fat 
veal.  Pour  off  most  of  the  water,  but  leave  enough  to 
cook  the  dumplings,  then  thicken  with  milk  and  flour  and 
season  the  poured-off  broth,  lift  the  dumplings  carefully, 
and  pour  over  them  the  gravy. 

Stewed  Chicken — With  Dumplings. 

Prepare  and  cook  same  as  veal  pot  pie. 

Escalloped  Beef  (Without  Butter). 

Cut  cold  roast  beef  or  steak  into  dice,  and  cook  slowly 
in  a  very  small  amount  of  water  until  tender.  Stir  to- 
gether in  a  cup  one-half  tablespoonful  of  water  and  the 
same  of  flour,  and  add  one-half  cup  of  soup  stock  or  water 
from  the  roasting  pan,  and  two  tablespoonfuls  of  strained 
tomato.  Pour  over  the  meat  in  the  dish  in  which  it  is  to 
be  served  enough  to  make  quite  moist,  cover  with  but- 
tered crumbs,  and  bake  in  the  oven  until  crumbs  are 
brown.  Made-over  dishes  generally  need  extra  seasoning. 


512  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

>.  Creamed  Hamburg  on  Toast  (Without  Butter). 

One-half  cup  of  milk,  two  teaspoonfuls  flour,  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  water,  one- fourth  cup  (scant)  chopped  fresh 
meat.  Stir  water  and  flour  together,  and  pour  the  cold 
milk  over  it.  Cook  four  or  five  minutes,  stirring  all  the 
time,  and  add  the  meat.  Let  boil,  season,  and  serve. 

To  Cook  Carrots  (Plain). 

When  carrots  are  to  be  cooked,  have  on  the  range, 
boiling  in  the  kettle,  such  an  amount  of  slightly  salted 
water  as  in  your  opinion  will  allow  the  carrots  to  barely 
cook  until  tender  without  burning.  The  exact  quantity 
of  water  cannot  be  given,  as  it  evaporates  more  rapidly 
some  days  than  others.  Put  the  carrots  in  whole,  or  as 
nearly  so  as  the  kettle  will  permit.  Keep  them  boiling 
steadily  until  tender.  Remove  the  carrots  from  the  ket- 
tle, and  with  a  sharp  knife  divide  each  through  the  cen- 
ter. For  each  half  pint  of  liquid  in  the  kettle,  measure 
out  a  level  tablespoonful  of  flour,  and  add  a  little  water 
to  it.  Stir  these  together  in  a  cup  until  thoroughly  mixed, 
then  put  into  the  boiling  liquid,  and  stir  until  the  flour  is 
cooked,  and  the  liquid  smooth  and  thickened  a  little. 
Then  season  to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper,  and  add  a 
sufficient  amount  of  vinegar  to  make  it  slightly  acid.  Re- 
turn carrots  to  the  kettle,  let  boil  and  serve. 

White  Sauce  (Without  Butter)  for  Carrots. 

Pour  one  cup  of  sweet  milk  into  a  saucepan,  and  let 
come  to  the  boiling  point.  Put  two  level  tablespoonfuls 
of  flour  into  a  bowl  or  teacup,  and  add  a  little  less  amount 
of  water  (cold).  Stir  until  smooth,  and  add  to  the  hot 
milk.  Let  boil  a  few  minutes,  and  season  with  salt  and 
pepper,  add  one  heaping  teaspoonful  of  parsley,  stir  up, 
pour  over  the  carrots,  and  serve. 

Plain  Sauces  for  Carrots. 

Sauce  No.  i :  Put  one  cup  of  milk  over  the  fire  to  heat. 
Measure  two  level  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  and  one  of 


APPENDIX- 


water.  Stir  until  thoroughly  mixed,  pour  the  hot  milk 
over  the  flour  mixture  and  cook.  Season  with  salt  and 
pepper. 

Sauce  No.  2  :  If  there  is  not,  liquid  enough  to  make 
the  sauce,  put  in  enough  rich  milk  to  make  the  required 
amount,  thicken  as  before,  season,  and  serve. 

Sauce  No.  3  :  Put  in  enough  beef  broth  to  make  the 
required  amount  of  liquid,  thicken  in  the  same  way  as 
above,  put  one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar  to  each  cup  of 
liquid,  season,  and  serve.  If  the  vinegar  is  very  sharp, 
use  less. 

White  Sauce  (Without  Butter)  for  Cabbage. 

Put  into  a  saucepan  one  cup  of  milk.  Heat  to  the  boil- 
ing point,  and  add  two  level  tablespoon  fuls  of  flour  and 
a  little  less  of  water,  mixed  smoothly.  Let  cook  until  it 
thickens  and  ceases  to  taste  of  raw  flour,  season  with  salt 
and  pepper,  pour  over  the  cabbage,  and  serve. 

Some  find  the  cabbage  more  palatable  by  removing  as 
much  water  as  possible  before  pouring  the  sauce  over  it. 
Cabbage  may  be  served  with  Hollandaise  Sauce. 

Hollandaise  Sauce  (Without  Butter). 

Pour  one  cup  of  White  Sauce  Without  Butter,  boiling 
hot,  over  a  beaten  egg,  pouring  slowly  and  beating  rapid- 
ly ;  add  one  tablespoonful  of  vinegar  or  lemon  juice.  Put 
over  the  fire,  and  heat  until  the  egg  cooks  a  little,  but  do 
not  allow  it  to  curdle.  Season  and  serve. 

Hollandaise  Sauce  )  Without  Butter)  No.  2. 

Stir  together,  until  well  mixed,  one  tablespoonful  each 
of  water  and  flour  ;  add  one  cup  of  thin  cream,  and  bring 
to  the  boiling  point.  While  boiling,  stir  in  the  well-beaten 
yolks  of  three  eggs,  in  which  has  been  put  one  tablespoon- 
ful of  vinegar  or  lemon  juice;  add  egg  slowly,  and  con- 
tinue cooking  after  egg  is  in  about  one  minute.  Remove 
from  fire,  add  the  seasoning  and  the  egg  whites,  beaten 
stiff. 

17 


514  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

To  Cook  Celery  (Plain). 

Scrub  with  a  vegetable  brush  to  remove  all  dirt  from  the 
creases.  Cut  in  half-inch  lengths,  and  cook  in  a  little  boil- 
ing salted  water.  When  tender,  serve  with  White  Sauce 
Without  Butter,  same  as  for  carrots,  except  leave  parsley 
out. 

To  Cook  Onions  (Plain). 

Peel  the  onions  and  put  to  cook  in  a  small  quantity  of 
water  (boiling  and  salted)  until  tender,  then  serve  with 
White  Sauce,  same  as  for  carrots. 

To  Cook  Tomatoes  (Plain). 

Lay  ripe  tomatoes  in  a  pan,  stem  side  up,  and  cover 
with  boiling  water;  let  stand  an  instant,  drain  off  the  hot 
water,  and  put  cold  water  on  them.-  Remove  the  skins, 
take  out  the  cores,  cut  the  tomatoes  in  pieces,  and  put  to 
cook  in  a  granite  ware  or  porcelain  kettle,  and  cook  until 
well  done.  Season  with  salt,  pepper,  and  butter,  and  add 
bread  crumbs. 

Or  make  Sauce  No.  I,  as  for  carrots,  and  mix 
with  bread  crusts  cut  in  dice.  Thicken  the  tomato  by 
first  putting  a  little  of  the  tomato  into  the  sauce,  then 
pouring  this  into  the  kettle  of  tomatoes,  stir  well  together, 
and  serve. 

Plain  White  Beans  in  Cream. 

Look  over  the  desired  quantity  of  dry  beans,  wash,  and 
put  to  soak  in  cold  water  to  cover  them.  Let  stand  over 
night,  or  for  several  hours,  until  they  have  absorbed  all 
the  water  they  will  take ;  then  put  to  cook,  using  the  water 
in  which  they  have  soaked,  and  adding  enough  boiling 
water  to  cover.  For  each  pint  of  beans  used  add  half  a 
tablespoonful  of  salt,  and  one  level  tablespoonful  of  sugar. 
Set  the  bean  jar  in  the  oven  and  cover.  Let  the  beans 
cook  until  soft,  but  not  dark.  When  done,  make  a  white 
sauce  by  using  one  tablespoonful  of  water  and  one  of  flour 
to  each  cup  of  milk  (as  directed  for  making  white  sauce 


APPENDIX.  515 

for  cabbage).     When  the  sauce  is  smooth,  season  to  taste, 
and  pour  over  the  beans. 

Plain  Salsify  or  Vegetable  Oysters. 

Wash  the  roots  clean,  and  remove  rootlets.  Scrape  the 
thin  skin  off,  and  keep  in  vinegar  water,  as  they  discolor 
very  readily.  Cut  into  bits,  and  cook  one  and  one-half 
hours  in  boiling  salted  water.  Keep  just  enough  water 
to  prevent  burning.  Season  same  as  peas.  Salt,  pepper, 
and  cream  give  best  results,  but  it  is  good  served  with 
White  Sauce  Without  Butter,  for  cabbage. 

Creamed  Potatoes  No.  1  (Without  Butter). 

Cut  cold  boiled  potatoes  in  thin  slices.  Put  into  the 
spider,  and  pour  enough  whole  milk  into  a  bowl  to  cover 
the  potatoes.  Season  the  milk  with  salt  and  pepper,  using 
each  to  taste  a  little,  but  remember  that  they  will  taste 
more  after  milk  evaporates,  and  do  not  use  too  much. 
Pour  the  seasoned  milk  over  the  potatoes,  place  spider 
where  the  milk  will  be  hot  enough  to  evaporate  without 
the  necessity  of  stirring  to  prevent  burning,  because  stir- 
ring mushes  potatoes.  Set  an  asbestos  mat  under  spider 
when  milk  is  hot,  and  allow  to  cook  until  the  milk  which 
remains  has  the  consistency  of  cream.  Serve  at  the  same 
meal  with  boiled  eggs. 

Creamed  Potatoes  No.  2  (Without  Butter). 

Cut  cold  boiled  potatoes  in  thin  slices.  Put  one  cup  of 
sweet  milk  in  a  saucepan,  and  set  on  range.  Stir  together 
in  a  teacup  two  tablespoonfuls  (level)  of  flour  and  a  lit- 
tle less  of  water,  and  when  milk  boils  pour  this  mixture 
slowly  into  it,  stirring  constantly  to  prevent  lumping. 
Season  to  taste  with  salt  and  pepper,  and,  after  it  has 
cooked  a  little,  pour  over  the  potatoes  in  spider.  Let 
boil,  and  serve. 


516  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Creamed  Turnips  (Without  Butter). 

Pare  tender  fine-flavored  turnips,  cut  in  dice.  Wash 
and  steam,  or  boil  in  little  water.  When  tender  and  the 
water  practically  all  evaporated  (if  boiled),  make  a  sauce 
in  the  following  manner:  Put  one  cup  of  milk  in  a 
saucepan  over  the  fire.  Stir  together  in  a  cup  one  table- 
spoonful  of  flour  and  a  little  less  of  cold  water,  and  when 
the  milk  boils  stir  this  into  it,  pouring  slowly  and  stirring 
constantly.  Continue  to  stir  until  it  has  boiled  a,  few  min- 
utes, remove  from  fire,  season,  and  pour  over  the  turnips ; 
let  boil,  and  serve. 

To  Cook  Peas  Dry. 

Shell  and  wash  fresh  green  peas.  Put  to  cook  in  plenty 
of  water.  Cook  until  tender,  then  allow  the  remaining 
water  to  evaporate.  When  all  has  evaporated  except  three 
or  four  tablespoonfuls,  season  the  peas  with  salt,  pepper, 
and  butter ;  cover,  and  allow  them  to  cook  five  or  ten  min- 
utes, lifting  the  saucepan  occasionally,  and  shaking,  to 
better  mix  the  seasoning  with  the  peas. 

Plain  Macedoine  Meat  Sauce. 

Sauce  for  reheating  dark  meats :  Sweet  corn,  strained 
tomatoes,  and  clear  soup  in  equal  quantities  form  a  basis 
for  a  brown  sauce  for  reheating  dark  meats.  Strain  sauce 
before  using,  then  cut  into  it  hard-boiled  eggs,  as  liked. 
Thicken  the  sauce  as  for  creamed  potatoes  without  butter. 

Plain  Tomato  Sauce. 

One  cup  of  strained  tomato,  one  tablespoonful  water, 
one  tablespoonful  flour.  Stir  the  water  and  flour  togeth- 
er, pour  in  the  cold  tomatoes,  and  cook  four  or  five  min- 
utes. 

Non-Butter  Sauce  for  Escalloped  Dishes. 

One  cup  of  whole  milk,  one  tablespoonful  of  flour,  and 
one  of  water.  Make  sauce  of  these,  and  season  to  taste 
with  salt  and  pepper. 


APPENDIX.  517 

Diced  Chicken  in  Bisque  Sauce. 

One-fourth  cup  of  chicken  or  veal  cut  in  small  dice, 
one-eighth  cup  of  cooked  egg  ( left  over  in  whatever  man- 
ner cooked),  cut  equally  fine,  one-eighth  of  a  cup  of 
cooked  rice.  Pour  over  it  enough  "Non-Butter  Sauce  for 
Escalloped  Dishes"  to  cover  it,  let  boil,  and  serve  on  toast. 

Brown  Sauce. 

One  pint  of  chicken  or  veal  broth,  one  tablespoonful  of 
butter,  and  two  of  flour.  Melt  the  butter,  add  the  flour, 
and  stir  until  a  good  brown,  but  do  not  allow  it  to  burn. 
Put  four  level  tablespoonfuls  of  flour  into  a  teacup,  and 
add  broth  or  water  enough  to  make  a  thin  batter.  Mix 
the  browned  flour  with  this,  and  add  to  the  boiling  liquid. 
Rinse  the  saucepan,  and  add  this  liquid  also.  Stir  until 
the  flour  is  cooked  and  the  liquid  thickened.  Season  with 
salt  and  pepper,  and  add  very  little  onion,  if  desired. 

Cold  Lemonade. 

Grate  the  yellow  rind  off  one-half  of  a  lemon,  and 
pour  a  generous  cup  of  boiling  water  over  it.  Let  it  stand 
while  you  squeeze  the  lemon,  then  add  lemon  juice  and 
one-third  cup  of  sugar,  and  set  where  it  will  become  very 
cold  before  serving. 

Cold  Orangeade. 

To  the  juice  of  one  sweet  orange  add  half  a  teaspoonful 
of  lemon  juice,  one  and  one-fourth  tablespoonfuls  of 
sugar,  and  two-thirds  of  a  cap  of  water.  Stir  until  sugar 
dissolves,  strain,  and  make  very  cold  before  serving. 

Cranberry  ade. 

Cook  half  a  cup  of  cranberries  in  a  generous  cup  of 
water  until  the  skins  break,  mash  the  fruit,  and  strain 
through  scalded  cheesecloth.  Do  not  squeeze,  but  simply 
allow  to  run  through ;  add  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon  juice 
and  three  and  one-half  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar.  Make 
very  cold,  and  serve. 


518  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

Raspberryade. 

Half  a  cup  of  raspberry  juice,  one  teaspoonful  of  lemon 
juice,  half  a  cup  of  water,  a  generous  half  tablespoonful 
of  sugar.  Stir  until  sugar  melts,  and  set  away  to  cool, 

Jelly-Flavored  Ice  Water. 

Into  three-fourths  of  a  cup  of  water  made,  very  cold 
(but  never  put  ice  into  it)  stir  one  teaspoonful  of  green 
grape,  currant,  barberry,  or  crabapple  jelly.  First  mix 
the  jelly  with  a  little  hot  water,  that  it  may  not  float  about 
in  lumps;  add  a  very  little  lemon  juice,  if  desired,  and 
serve  cold. 

Pineapple  Soup. 

A  generous  half  cup  of  shredded  pineapple,  one-third 
of  a  cup  of  orange  juice,  one  and  a  half  teaspoonfuls  of 
lemon  juice,  a  generous  half  tablespoonful  of  sugar  (less 
if  canned  pineapple  is  used),  one  teaspoonful  of  arrow- 
root. Strain  the  fruit  pulp  through  cheesecloth,  and 
squeeze  juice  out.  Moisten  the  arrowroot  with  cold  wa- 
ter; add  arrowroot  and  sugar  to  fruit  juices;  bring  to 
boiling  joint,  and  let  simmer  a  few  minutes;  add  half  as 
much  hot  water  as  there  is  of  the  liquid;  cool,  and  serve. 

Raspberry  and  Currant  Soup. 

Scant  half  cup  of  raspberry  juice,  scant  fourth  cup  of 
currant  juice,  scant  half  cup  of  water,  one  and  one-half 
teaspoonfuls  of  lemon  juice,  scant  half  tablespoonful  of 
arrowroot.  Moisten  arrowroot  with  cold  water,  add  to 
other  ingredients,  boil  a  few  minutes,  sweeten,  and  cool. 

Junket  Whey. 

One  junket  tablet,  one  pint  of  whole  milk  (fresh).  If 
the  milk  has  cooled,  warm  to  about  'the  heat  of  new  milk. 
Dissolve  the  tablet,  and  put  it  into  the  milk,  and  stir  until 
mixed.  Keep  the  milk  luke  warm  until  it  separates  well. 
Cut  the  curd  with  a  knife,  and  strain  the  mixture  through 
a  cheesecloth  bag.  May  use  a  teaspoonful  of  liquid  ren- 
net instead  of  the  tablet  for  forming  the  curd.  After 


APPENDIX.  519 

straining,  make  the  liquid  cold,  and  serve  as  it  is,  or 
add  lemon  juice  to  taste.  May  use  less  rennet,  and  keep 
warm  longer  in  curding. 

Pineapple  Frappe.  * 

One  pineapple  pared  and  shredded,  the  juice  of  three 
lemons,  one  and  one-half  pints  of  sugar,  one  and  one-half 
pints  of  water.  Make  a  syrup  of  sugar  and  water,  and 
mix  well  with  other  ingredients;  then  add  about  three 
times  as  much  cold  water  as  there  is  of  the  mixture. 
Freeze  very  little,  and  serve;  or  simply  make  very  cold, 
and  use  as  a  beverage. 

Gooseberry  Jelly. 

Wash  green  gooseberries,  and  put  to  cook  in  a  little 
water  (just  enough  to  show  through  the  berries).  Cook 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  they  are  soft  and  burst 
open  ;  then  turn  into  a  jelly  bag,  and  allow  to  drain.  Meas- 
ure the  juice,  and  return  to  the  fire.  Cook  eight  minutes 
after  it  begins  to  boil.  Add  as  much  sugar  as  there  was 
juice.  When  it  again  reaches  the  boiling  point,  cook  two 
minutes,  and  turn  into  glasses. 

Black  Raspberry  and  Currant  Jelly, 

Look  over  equal  parts  of  currants  and  black  raspberries, 
leaving  currants  on  the  stems,  and  washing  both.  Mash 
the  two  together,  and  cook  just  enough  to  make  juices 
run  freely.  Pour  into  a  pointed  strainer,  and  let  drain. 
Measure  the  juice,  and  put  to  cook.  Measure  an  equal 
amount  of  sugar,  and  when  juice  has  cooked  ten  minutes 
add  the  sugar.  Let  boil  up  well,  so  that  sugar  is  all  melt- 
ed, and  pour  into  glasses.  Let  stand  twenty- four  hours; 
then  put  papers  over  the  tops  of  glasses,  or  pour  hot  par- 
afrme  over  jelly. 

Hygienic  Dessert. 

Heat  in  a  double  boiler  one  quart  of  whole  sweet  milk. 
When  boiling  hot,  add  one  teaspoonful  of  salt  and  one- 


520  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

third  of  a  cup  of  cream  of  wheat.  Let  cook  one-half 
hour,  stirring  occasionally  the  first  fifteen  minutes.  When 
the  cereal  has  cooked  one-half  hour,  pour  it  over  one 
whole  egg  beaten  until  light  and  sweetened  with  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  sugar.  Stir  only  enough  to  thorough- 
ly mix  the  ingredients.  Serve  either  hot  or  cold,  with 
cream  or  with  fresh  fruit. 

Bills  of  Fare  for  Farmers. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  it  is  well  to  make  out 
each  morning  a  bill  of  fare  for  the  day,  even  if  no  more 
time  is  spent  than  simply  to  think  it  out.  Because  the 
family  often  consists  of  aged  people,  laborers  and  children 
and  it  is  necessary  that  each  find  on  the  table  the  kind, 
quality  and  amount  of  food  suited  to  the  needs  of  the 
body  and  to  the  palate  of  the  one  partaking  of  a  meal. 
One  can  thus  be  more  certain  of  securing  needed  va- 
riety from  day  to  day.  It  is  also  easier  to  use  the  left 
overs  wisely  and  economically.  Bills  of  fare  should  be 
simple — that  is,  there  should  be  few  courses  in  a  meal. 
No  one  needs  many  courses  in  a  meal  and  farmers  usually 
have  the  good  sense  to  abstain  from  such  customs.  There 
are  a  few  rules  which  should  always  be  kept  in  mind,  if 
one  would  have  the  best  results.  No  two  articles  similar 
in  flavor  and  general  properties  should  appear  in  the  same 
meal,  except,  of  course,  some  may  be  similar  to  those  al- 
ways on  the  table,  such  as  bread,  butter,  sugar,  etc. 
Neither  is  there  any  good  reason  why  tomatoes  raw  and 
cooked  should  not  appear  at  the  same  meal  if  some  like 
them  one  way  and  not  the  other.  There  is  no  good 
reason  why  a  vegetable  whose  season  is  short  at  best, 
as  asparagus,  green  peas,  etc.,  should  not  appear  on 
the  table  on  consecutive  days.  They  can  be  dressed  in 
different  ways  and  thus  afford  variety,  and  if  the  family 
exercise  due  self  control  in  the  amount  eaten,  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  their  tiring  of  it  during  the  short  time  it 
is  to  be  had  fresh. 


APPENDIX.  521 

The  following  few  bills  of  fare  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  author's  idea : 

BREAKFAST. 

Strawberries.  Rolled  Wheat  Mush. 

Sugar.  Cream. 

Bread.  Butter. 

Meat.  Potatoes.  Rolls. 

Coffee.  Milk. 

BREAKFAST. 

Grapes.  Boiled  Rice. 

Bread  and  Butter.  Cream  and  Sugar. 

Poached  Eggs.  Hashed  Potatoes. 

Dry  Toast.  Coffee.     Milk. 

BREAKFAST. 

Fruit  Sauce. 

Cornmeal  Mush.     Sugar  and  Cream. 

Bread.         Butter. 

Plain  Boiled  Potatoes. . 

Codfish  in  White  Sauce. 

Milk.         Coffee. 

BREAKFAST. 

Apples. 

Oatmeal  Mush.  Sugar  and  Cream. 

Broiled  Bacon.  Creamed  Potatoes. 

Bread.  Butter. 

Milk.  Coffee. 

Fruit,  or  fruit  sauce,  is  placed  first  on  the  breakfast 
bill  of  fare  because  fruit  taken  at  the  beginning  of  the 
morning  meal  is  found  by  some  to  be  both  pleasing  and 
beneficial.  Strawberries,  blackberries,  peaches  and  ba- 
nanas are  each  very  palatable  (in  their  raw  state)  with 
wheat  mush.  Eating  fruit  rather  than  cream  with  mush 
gives  to  some  a  pleasing  variety.  Cornmeal  mush  and 
oatmeal  mush  make  a  better  food  with  milk  than  with 
cream  and  sugar,  but  on  account  of  greater  palatability 
it  is  sometimes  better  to  take  the  cream  or  fruit,  as  the 


522  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

mush  will  not  be  eaten  if  served  with  milk,  and  cereals 
are  a  valuable  addition  to  the  morning  meal.  It  is  not 
necessary  in  the  manufacture  of  cereals  that  any  of  the 
edible  portion  of  the  grain  be  excluded  from  the  finished 
product.  Cereals  therefore  contain  all  the  mineral  matter 
and  muscle-forming  material  of  the  grains  from  which 
they  are  made.  They  also  give  some  bulk  to  the  food, 
and  this  is  needed  by  old  and  young  alike.  Good*  bread  is 
truly  the  staff  of  life,  and  while  other  foods  can  furnish 
fat  in  sufficient  amount,  no  other  fat  equals  butter  in  flavor 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used.  Lean  meat,  eggs 
and  fish  give  muscle-forming  material  and  mineral  matter, 
both  of  which  are  needed  to  give  children  good  teeth  and 
bones  and  strong  muscles,  as  well  as  for  repair  in  older 
bodies.  Potatoes  furnish  materials  for  heat  and  energy 
and  also  help  give  the  needed  bulk  in  food.  Milk  fur- 
nishes bulk,  mineral  matter,  etc.,  and  pleases  the  palate 
and  cheapens  the  expense  of  living  anywhere.  Coffee 
pleases  the  palate,  but  increases  the  expense  and  often 
injures  the  health.  For  these  reasons  children  should  be 
brought  up  in  such  a  way  as  to  have  no  desire  for  it  if 
possible. 

There  is  no  good  reason  for  many  courses  in  a  dinner. 
Four  is  enough  to  give  all  the  food  a  person  needs  at  the 
time,  and  since  there  is  but  one  good  reason  for  eating, 
viz.,  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  body,  this  answers  the 
conditions.  The  following  menus  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  manner  in  which  a  variety  can  be  given  from  day  to 
day  in  summer,  autumn  or  winter.  Soup  is  used  prima- 
rily to  aid  in  giving  the  system  the  needed  bulk ;  seconda- 
rily, to  quiet  the  nerves  and  allay  the  feeling  of  extreme 
haste  which  often  causes  farmers  to  eat  too  hurriedly  to 
masticate  their  food  properly,  if  solid  food  is  taken  at  the 
beginning  of  the  meal.  Raw  vegetables  are  used  for  the 
sake  of  the  vegetable  acids  and  mineral  matter  they  fur- 
nish, and  also  for  bulk,  variety  and  palatability.  Both 
raw  vegetables  and  raw  fruits  help  to  tone  the  system 


APPENDIX.  523 

and  are  cheaper  and  more  palatable  than  medicine. 
Cooked  vegetables  are  used  largely  for  bulk  and  variety, 
though  they  of  course  all  give  some  food  value  and  in 
case  of  legumes  a  goodly  amount  of  it.  Desserts  are  used 
principally  to  gratify  the  palate,' and  are  often  eaten  when 
no  food  is  needed.  For  this  reason  melons,  berries,  raw 
fruit,  etc.,  are  better  than  pastry,  etc.,  for  dessert  usually. 
When  the  busy  housewife  can  find  time  to  prepare  no 
more  than  three  courses  she  may  leave  off  dessert  with- 
out fear  of  injuring  any  one's  health. 
DINNER. 

Potato  Soup. 
Chow   Chow. 

Baked  Beans.     Steamed  Brown  Bread. 
Mashed  Potatoes.     Stewed  Tomatoes. 
Bread.     Butter. 
Celery  Salad. 
. .      Apples. 
Milk!     Water. 
DINNER. 

Cream  of  Tomato  Soup. 

Pickles. 
Roast  Pork  with  Apple  Sauce. 

Browned  Potatoes. 

Mashed  Turnips.     Stewed  Dry  Beans. 

Bread.     Butter. 

Tea.     Water. 

Grapes. 

DINNER. 

Bean  Soup. 

Pickled  Beets. 

Beef  Stew.     Baked  Potatoes. 

Mashed  Parsnips.  Stewed  Dried  Corn. 

Bread.     Butter. 

Cabbage  Salad. 

Apple  Pie. 
Milk.     Cocoa. 


524  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

DINNER. 

Corned  Beef. 

Boiled  Cabbage. 

Dried  Lima  Beans  (stewed  or  in  cream). 

(Canned)    Stewed  Tomatoes.     Mashed  Potatoes. 

Bread.     Butter. 

Beet  Salad. 

Apples. 
Milk.     Coffee. 

DINNER. 

Boiled  Pickled  Pork  and  Potatoes. 

Asparagus. 
Macaroni  with  Cheese. 

Pickled  Beets. 

Pieplant    Shortcake    with    Cream. 
Tea.     Milk. 

DINNER. 

Vegetable  Soup. 

Young  Onions. 

Chicken  Stew.     Dumplings. 

New  Beets.     Mashed  Potatoes. 

Bread.     Butter. 

Lettuce. 

Gooseberry  Pie. 
Milk.  Water. 

DINNER. 

Tomato  Soup    (from  canned  tomatoes). 

Radishes. 
Ham  and  Eggs. 

Mashed  Potatoes.     Green  Corn. 

String  Beans. 

Bread.     Butter. 

Strawberries  and  Cream. 

Milk.     Water. 


APPENDIX.  525 

DINNER. 

Stewed  Chicken.       Baked  Potatoes. 

New  Peas. 
Sliced  Cucumbers. 
Custard  Pie. 
Coffee.     Milk. 

DINNER. 

Potato  Soup. 
Sliced  Tomatoes. 
Baked  Fish.     Mashed  Potatoes. 

Green  Beans. 

Bread.     Butter. 

Cucumbers  and  Onions  (vinegar  dressing). 

Green  Tomato  Pie. 
Milk.  Water. 

For  the  sake  of  those  who  are  interested  in  longer  din- 
ners simple  menus  illustrating  such  will  be  given. 

FIVE-COURSE  DINNER. 

Julienne  Soup. 

Celery.  Olives. 

Broiled  Whitefish— Parsley  Butter. 

Roast  Lamb — Currant  Jelly. 

Green  Peas.  Mashed  Potatoes. 

Macaroni  with  Cheese. 

Lettuce  Salad. 

Salted  Wafers. 

Ice  Cream.  Cake. 

Coffee. 


526  HOUSEHOLD  SCIENCE. 

SIX-COURSE  DINNER. 
Raw  Oysters — Lemon  Points. 

Bouillon. 

Sliced  Cucumbers.  Olives. 

Baked  Shad. 

Roast  Turkey, 

Chestnut  Dressing,  Cranberry  Sauce. 
Baked  Sweet  Potatoes.     Mashed  Potatoes. 
Boiled  Rice. 
Tomato  Salad. 

Cheese  Wafers. 

Strawberry  Jelly.  Whipped  Cream. 

Cake.  Coffee. 

For  a  seven-course  dinner  game  would  be  added  to  a 
six-course  dinner. 


INDEX. 


*The  star  indicates  illustrations. 
tThe  dagger  indicates  recipes. 

Abuses   of  foods 415 

Acetous  fermentation 84 

Action  of  yeast  in  dough 95 

tA  delicate  dessert  342 

Adulterations  in  wheat  flour 83 

in  coffee  246 

in  tea 255 

Aerated  bread 89 

Albuminoids    410 

Albumen    cooking    220-224 

Alcoholic  fermentation   84 

Alcohol  as  a  fuel 10 

Alkaloids  of  coffee   246 

of  tea   246 

Alkaloid  of  cocoa 251 

Aluminum    utensils 21 

tAlmond  creams 476 

t      "        macaroons   437 

t      "        wafers    435 

t  Almonds  to  blanch 381 

t  chocolate    474 

t  salted  381 

Allspice 173 

Alum  powders   90 

American  cheese  236 

t  Amber  j  elly  (class  rule)    340 

tAngel  cake  (class  rule)    426 

t      "      cake   (home   rule) 425 

Animal  foods 177 

Anthracite  coal    3 

t  Apricots  and  prunes  to  stew 152 

t         "        frozen 380 

tApricot  water  330 


530  INDEX. 

Apples  147 

t  "  and  raisins  dried  to  cook 152 

t  "  and  currants  dried,  to  cook 152 

t  "  and  rhubarb  150 

t  "  buttered 153 

t  "  to  bake 149 

t  to  stew  149 

"  object  of  sulphuring 308 

t  Apple  and  quince  preserves 165 

t  "  and  rhubarb  marmalade 161 

t  "  and  red  raspberry 159 

t  "  and  grape  j  elly 159 

t  "  and  high  bush  cranberry  jelly 158 

t  "  and  nut  salad 297 

t  "  and  cranberry  jelly 157 

t  "  and  cranberry  jelly  (class  rule) 157 

t  "  and  rhubarb  jelly 158 

t  "  and  quince  jelly 158 

t  "  custard  pie  360 

t  Apples  dried,  to  cook 152 

t  "  frozen 380 

tApple  jelly 155 

jelly 340 

t  "  marmalade  161 

t  "  pie  363 

t  "  pie,  dried 361 

t  "  pudding  350 

t  "  pudding,  baked  351 

t  "  pudding,  dried 351 

snow 351 

t  sauce,  baked v 149 

t  "  sauce  cider 149 

t  Apples,  sweet,  to  preserve 164 

tApple  salad  No.  i 296 

t  "  salad  No.  2 297 

t  "  toast  488 

t  tapioca  pudding  347 

t  water 330 

Arrowroot  314 

t  custard  335 

t  gruel  332 

tAspic  jelly,  stock  for 267 

t  Asparagus,  salad  290 


INDEX.  531 

tAsparagus,  to  cook  52 

Atwater's  analysis  of  cereals 70 

tBacon,  to  broil    194 

Baking 33 

tBaked,  apple  sauce 149 

t      "       apple  pudding 351 

t      "       apple  dumplings 365 

Baking  bread 103 

"       bread,  temperature  of  over  for 103 

tBaked  beans  , 62 

f     "        beans,  puree  of 273 

t     "        custard , 344 

t     "        custard  (class  work)   344 

*Baking  dish 481 

tBaked,  egg  plant 60 

t     "        eggs  in  potato  nest 228 

t     "        eggs  in  tomato  cups 228 

t     "        eggs 228 

Baking  in  different  ovens 1 19 

Baking  powders 90 

"        powders,  phosphate  90 

"        powders,  tartrate 90 

"        powders,  alum 90 

"        powders,  home-made 91 

"        powder  and  soda,  how  to  use 112 

"        powder,  rendering  doughs  light  with 89 

"        powder  griddle  cakes 115 

t      "        powder  biscuit  119 

t  powder  biscuit  (class  work) 119 

"        powder  biscuit,  heat  of  oven  for 122 

t  powder  corn  bread 134 

t  powder  pastry   •. 360 

t      "        powder  pie  crust 358 

"        vegetables    48 

tBalls,  pop-corn 498 

t    '        pop-corn,  tinted  498 

tBanana  cake  507 

t      "        filling  for  cake  438 

t      "        salad 298 

t      "        salad  (class  rule) 298 

t      "        sherbert    372 

tBananas  to  saute 215 


532  INDEX. 

Barm,  Parisian  88 

"       virgin   88 

tBarley  gruel    332 

tBasting  for  fowls  (class  work) 202 

t      "        for  fowls  (home  rule) 202 

Bay  leaves 174 

tBeans  and  corn,  cream  of 277 

t      "      baked 62 

t      "       string,    to    cook 55 

t      "       stewed   62 

t      "       white,  in  cream 61 

t      "       white,  in  cream,  plain 514 

tBechamel,  sauce 486 

tBeef,  broth  with  tomatoes  (home  rule) 264 

t     "      broth  with  tomatoes  (class  rule) 264 

t     "      broth    333 

t     "      balls,  horseradish  sauce 215 

t     "      braised    198 

"      comparative  value  of  cuts  of 180 

"       chuck  ribs  of 178 

"      cross  ribs  of 179 

t     "       corned 183 

t     "      corned,  to  cook 186 

t     "      steak,  to  broil   190 

t     "      steak,  to  pan  broil 192 

t     "      custard 335 

t     "      escalloped 490 

t     "      essence    263 

t     "      escalloped  with  macaroni 490 

t     "      escalloped  without  butter 511 

"      flank 179 

t     "       frizzled    490 

t     "       hash  in  tomato  cups 487 

t     "       (hamburg  steak)  to  broil 192 

t            juice  264 

"      loin  of  179 

"      names  of  cuts  of 179 

plate  of  179 

*  "      prime  ribs  and  short  loin 196 

t     "      powder    334 

Beef,  rump 179 

*  "      ribs  and  short  loin 195 

"       shank 179 


INDEX.  533 

*Beef,   side  of   179 

"      seven  best  ribs  of 178 

"      shoulder  of 179 

*  "      round 188 

*  "       short  loin  191 

*  "      small  end  rib  cut 197 

*  "      shoulder  cut  „ 198 

t     "      salad 292 

"  steak,  to  carve 217 

to  select  303 

t  "  to  cook  a  pot  roast  of 189 

t  "  tea 333 

t  "  tea,  emergency 263 

t  "  tea 263 

t  "  toast 335 

t  "  to  roast  a  piece  of 196 

"      uses  of,  cuts 178 

*  "      wedge  bone,  sirloin  of 190 

tBeet,  croquettes    483 

tBeets,  to  cook 54 

tBerries,  pickled 171 

Beverages 245-255 

t  "  chilled  379 

Bills  of  fare 383 

"  of  fare  for  farmers 520 

tBirds,  wild 334 

t  Biscuit,  baking  powder  (class  rule) 119 

t  "  baking  powder  (home  rule) 119 

tBiscuits  with  sour  milk  118 

tBisque,  of  lobster  (home  rule) 279 

t  "  of  lobster  (class  rule) 279 

Bituminous  coal 4 

tBlackberry,  and  currant  jelly 5*9 

tBlackberries,  frozen  379 

tBlackberry  sauce  I51 

Blackberries,  to  prepare,  for  table 377 

t  Black  beans,  puree  of 273 

t  "  tea,  to  make 255 

tBlueberry  corn  muffins 133 

t  "  griddle  cakes 115 

Boiling  33 

t  "  meats 183 

"  vegetables  48 


534  INDEX.  I 

tBoiled,  custard  (home  rule) 344 

t      "        custard  (class  rule)   344 

t  eggs,  soft  (class  rule) 226 

t      "        frosting,  with  eggs 439 

t      "        frosting  without  eggs 439 

t  tongue,   tomato   sauce 480 

tBonbons  476 

tBouillion    267 

*  "  cup 266 

Braising 196 

34 

tBraised  beef 198 

Brazil  coffee 246 

Bread  and  rolls,  heat  of  oven  for 122 

aerated   89 

*  "      and  pans 107 

"      baking  of • 103 

t     "      corn,  No.  i 134 

t    "      corn,  No.  2 134 

Breadcrumb  soup 278 

t  soup  (class  rule)   278 

tBread,  federal 109 

t     "       from  coarse  flours 105 

t     "       ginger  (home  rule)    434 

"       making 93 

"       making,  things  of  importance  in 96-98 

"       making,  losses  of  dry  matter  in 98 

"      making,  soluble  carbohydrates  production  of 99-100 

"       making,  losses  of  carbon. 99 

t     "       nut 134 

t     "        pudding   352 

t     "       rye 109 

t     "       steamed   fruit    509 

t     "       salt  rising 109 

*Breadsticks  and  pans 107 

Bread,  stirred 102 

t      "      to  saute  211 

t     "      unscalded  corn  meal 508 

t     "      whole  wheat 109 

t     "      with  potato  yeast 108 

t      "      with  liquid  yeast 108 

t      "      with  compressed  yeast  No.   i 108 

t      "       with  compressed  yeast  No.  2 108 


INDEX.  535 

tBread,  with  home-made  yeast 106 

Breakfast   450 

*        "          table  laid  for 450 

tBreast  of  chicken  in  cream 480 

Brewers'  yeast   86-87 

Brie  cheese  235 

Broiling,   methods  of    33 

189 

over  coals  33 

tBroiled  mackerel IQ4 

tBroth,  beef 333 

t      "      chicken    333 

t      "      lamb 333 

tBroths,  meat .' 260 

tBroth,  noodle  265 

t      "      scotch  (class  rule)  271 

t      "      scotch  (home  rule)   271 

tBrown  bread,  steamed 135 

tBrown,  betty 35o 

t     "        soup  (class  rule)   271 

t     "        sauce 517 

t     "        sugar  taffy  (class  rule) 470 

t     "        sugar  taffy  470 

tButtered,  apples 153 

tButter,  crabapple 162 

t      "       cake  (class  rule)  423 

t      "       cake  (home  rule)  423 

t      "       parsley  194 

t      "       scotch 471 

t       "        to  clarify  208 

"       to  select 306 

t      "       tomato  (class  rule)   161 

t      "       tomato 161 

tButtermilk,  mulled  * 331 

tBuns no 

tBun  cake   in 

Caffeine 246 

tCabbage,  boiled  52 

t        "          creamed    53 

family , 44 

t  hot  slaw  No.  i 52 

t        "          hot  slaw  No.  2 53 


536  INDEX. 

Cabbage,  losses  in  cooking 53 

t        "          pickled 170 

t        "          salad 290 

f        "          salad  cream  dressing 291 

t        "          to  cook  . 52 

t        "          to   saute    208 

tCake,  angel  (class  rule) 426 

t     "       angel  (home  rule) 425 

f     "       banana    507 

t     "      banana  filling  for,  No.  2 507 

t     "      banana  filling  for,  No.  I  438 

t     "      butter  (home  rule) 423 

t     "       butter  (class  rule) 423 

t  cheap  spoVige   507 

t     "       cheap  fruit 506 

t     "       cooked  filling  for 439 

t  coffee  ginger  (home  rule) 434 

"       coffee  ginger  (class  rule) 434 

t     "       chocolate,  Mrs.  Hays 431 

t  caramel  429 

t  caramel  filling  for 430 

t     "       cream  (home  rule) 426 

t     "       cream  (class  rule) : 426 

t     "       fruit  filling  for 438 

t     "       fig ..  432 

t     "       fruit,    Mrs.    Preston 432 

t     "       fruit,  Mrs.  Lugger 432 

tCake,  roll,  filling  for 427 

t     "       ginger  (class  rule)    : 434 

t  gold   424 

t     "       hash   487 

t  marbled  chocolate 431 

t     "       Maud's    430 

t     "       marshmallow ' 429 

t  marshmallow,  filling  for 429 

"       making 421 

"       making,  utensils  used  in 421 

making,  utensils  used  in 421 

t     "       nut  filling  for 438 

t     "       nut  loaf 508 

t     "       nut  custard 503 

t     "       nut  and  popcorn 499 

t     "       one  egg 5°5 


INDEX.  537 

tCake,  orange  filling  for 438 

t     "       popcorn , 499 

t     "       plain  chocolate  filling 502 

t     "       pound    432 

t     "       plain    502 

t     "       raspberry  sponge   502 

t     "       ribbon   430 

t     "      roll  (class  rule)  426 

t     "       roll  (home  rule)   426 

t     "      six  egg  505 

t     "      spiced   No.    1 431 

t     "       spiced  No.  2 431 

t     "       sunshine  427 

t     "       sponge,  Mrs.  Ewing 425 

f     "       sponge,  Mrs.  Caldwell 424 

t     "       silver   424 

t     "      to  make  butter 422 

t     "      white   504 

t     "      white,  Miss  Pike 429 

t     "      white,    plain    428 

t     "       water    sponge    425 

t     "       yellow   504 

t     "       yolk,  with  water 423 

Calf's  head,  to  prepare 189 

tCamembert  cheese 235 

tCandy,  cream  (class  rule) 476 

t      "       cream 475 

t       "        cream,  Mrs.  Clark 475 

t       "        peanut 471 

t       "        plain  molasses 471 

t       "        tutti  frutti   476 

t      "•       velvet,  molasses  470 

t  Candies,  home-made   469 

t        "        uncooked   477 

tCandied,  nuts 477 

t        "         orange  and  lemon  peel 166 

Cane  sugar 412 

Canning ; 141 

*       " 141 

fruits,  rule  for 142 

t       "         fruits    without   cooking 144 

Canned  fish   397 

Cannel  coal 5 


538  INDEX. 

tCantaloupe,  frozen   380 

t  to  prepare,  for  table 378 

Capers  175 

tCaper  sauce , 184 

Carbohydrates 411 

Care  of  foods 309-311 

"      of  dried  fruits 311 

"      of  fresh  meats 310 

"      of  milk 310 

"     of  spices  310 

"     of  tea 310 

"      of  yeast 310 

of  cake  311 

of   cereals    .311 

"      of  canned  goods 309 

"     of  cheese 311 

"     of  codfish 310 

"     of  coffee  310 

"     of  compressed  yeast 105 

Caraway   174 

t  Caramel  231 

t       "          cake 429 

t       "          cream  355 

t      "          creams    No.    I 473 

t       "          creams  No.  2 474 

t       "          custard  344 

t        "          frosting 440 

t       "          ice  cream 368 

t       "          omelet  (home  rule)  . . '. 231 

t       "          pudding  with  water 345 

t       "          pudding  345 

t       "          souffle  (home  rule) 343 

t       "          souffle  (class  rule)    343 

t       "          sauce 355 

tCarrots,  to  cook  plain 512 

t       "        to  cook  50 

t       "        in  white  sauce 50 

t  sauce  for 51 

tCarrot,    salad   289 

Carving 216 

*Carving  knife  and  fork 216 

Caviar 220 

Cellar 25 


INDEX.  539 

Celery    174 

t      "        cream    of 277 

t      "        and  nut  sandwich -.  139 

t      "        and  nut  salad 293 

t      "        salad 293 

t      "        sandwich   139 

t      "        to  cook 54 

t      "        to   cook  plain 514 

tCereal,  coffees 248 

*      "        grains    63 

t     "       tea    334 

Cereals,  prepared  from  corn 7I-72 

"         to  select   307 

Cellulose 67 

use  of,  in  food 77 

Cerealine  flakes,  to  cook 73 

Ceylon  coffee 246 

Charcoal  1      6 

tCharlotte,  milk  (home  rule) 343 

t        "          russe 341 

t        "          rhubarb 353 

tCheap,  fruit  cake 5°6 

t      "       sponge  cake 507 

Cheese  234-237 

t      "      balls  No.  i 243 

t      "      balls  No.  2 244 

"       Brie   235 

"       Camembert 235 

"      Chedder   235 

"       cookery 237-240 

"      cottage 234 

t      "      crackers  or  toast 243 

"       digestibility  of   237 

"      Double  Gloucester 235 

"       English 235 

t      "      fondue 241 

"      food  value  of 237 

"       French 235 

"      full  cream  cheddars 236 

"      gruyere  235 

"       Holland    235 

"      mushes    244 

Neufchatel  235 


540  INDEX. 

tCheese,   omelet   232 

"       Parmesan 236 

"       Port  du  Salut 235 

t  pudding 241 

Roquefort 235 

t      "       sandwich  No.  i 135 

t  sandwich  No.  2 139 

t  souffle  (class  rule)   242 

souffle  (home  rule)   242 

"       Stilton 235 

t  straws    240 

t      "       straws  No.  1 366 

t  straws  No.  2 366 

"       skim 236 

t      "       strata 241 

t      "      toast , .  242 

t  timbales  (class  rule) 240 

t        '       timbales    240 

t  with  rice  243 

•  t      "       with  spaghetti 243 

t  with  macaroni 243 

Young  America 236 

tChervil  dressing   292 

tCherry  pie 362 

t  Cherries,  to  can 144 

tCherry  and  currant  jelly 158 

tCherries,  to  preserve    164 

tChestnuts,  to  roast .' 381 

tChicken,  broth 333 

t  broiled,  to  carve 219 

t       **         consomme   266 

t       "         cream  of  No.  I 280 

t  cream  of  No.  2 280 

t       "         cream  of  No.  3 280 

t  cream  of  No.  4 280 

t        "          croquettes    485 

t       "         etc.,  escalloped 495 

t        "          in  bisque  sauce . 517 

t       "         pie  (class  rule) 496 

t  pie 495 

t       "         pressed    491 

t       "         salad    296 

t       "         stew  with  dumplings  511 


INDEX.  541 

tChicken,  terrapin    492 

t        "         to  broil 192 

t        "          to  carve '. 219 

t       "         to  prepare  and  roast 201 

t        "         to  saute 2ii 

t        "         to  oven  broil 193 

tChili  sauce 169 

tChilled  beverages 379 

*Child's  breakfast 497 

*      "       lunch    basket 136 

Children's   parties 496 

*China  closet 15 

Chocolate  252 

t                    almonds 474 

t                     cake,  Mrs.  Hays' 431 

f                     caramels 473 

t                     cream 341 

t                    creams   474 

f                     frosting 503 

t         "          frosting  No.  i 439 

t                    frosting  No.  2 440 

t                    ice  cream  No.  i 368 

t                     ice  cream  No.  2 368 

f  Chow  chow 171 

tChowder,  fish 278 

Cinnamon 173 

tCider,  apple  sauce 149 

"      vinegar   167 

tCitron,  preserved 166 

*City  market 300 

Classification  of  foods 408 

Classes  of  diets 325 

"        of  fried  food 204 

Classification  of  nutrients 409 

Classes  of  salads 284 

tClam  fritters 365 

"        of  salad  dressings 281 

of  soups 262 

"        of  teas 254 

Clear  soup  or  consomme 265 

Cleaning  silver,  glass,  etc  30 

Cloves   173 

Coal,  varieties  of 3 


542  INDEX. 

Cocoa 249 

"      alkaloid  of 251 

"•      composition  of,  Payejn 251 

flakes  251 

t  made  from  nibs 253 

"      nibs 251 

*  "      pot  and  cups 250 

t      "      to   make 253 

tCocoanut  bar 473 

t        "          macaroons 437 

tCodfish  balls 491 

t       "       creamed,  evaporated  cream 491 

t       "       balls  from  left  overs 510 

Coffee 245 

"      alkaloids  of. . .  246 

"      adulterations  of 246 

Brazil 246 

t      "      cake  from  bun  dough ill 

t      "      cereal 248 

Ceylon 245 

t  cleared  with  egg  No.  1 247 

t      "      cleared  with  egg  No.  2 248 

t      "      cream 338 

t      "      crust 334 

t      "      drip 248 

t      "      ginger  cake  (home  rule) 434 

t      "      ginger  cake  (class  rule) 434 

"      hygienic 24$ 

t      "      jelly 338 

Java 246 

"      Mocha 246 

t      "      perfait    369 

*  "      plant,  flower  and  bean  pod 245 

*  "      pot  "Old  Time" 247 

"      West  India 245 

Coke 5 

tCold  orangeade 517 

t     "      cream  frosting 440 

t     "     lemonade 517 

t     "      meat  scrapple,  to  saute 213 

t     "      slaw 291 

Coloring  of  sugar 413 

Combination    of   food    materials 388*  891 


INDEX.  543 

tCombinations  of  fruit,  for  puddings '. 348 

Common  forms  of  pastes 312 

Comparative  food  value  of  meats 400-404 

Composition  of  eggs  225 

Compounds  of  food 407 

tCompressed  yeast  bread,  graham  flour 109 

t  yeast  bread  No.  i 107 

t  "  yeast  bread  No.  2 108 

yeast 88-89 

yeast,  care  of 105 

Condiments 172 

spices  and  flavors 172-176 

Consomme 260 

t          "  chicken 266 

or  clear  soup 265 

Contamination  of  milk 319 

Cooked  dressing 281 

tCookies  (class  rule) 436 

Cooking  eggs 220 

tCooked  filling  for  cakes 439 

Cooking,  methods  of 33-35 

object  of 34 

tCookies,    oatmeal    437 

Cooking  of  protein  foods -. 237,  238 

tCooked  salad  dressing 285 

Cooking  vegetables  in  water,  reason  for 259 

tCookies  with  soda 436 

t       "        with  baking  powder 436 

Copper  utensils 21 

tCorbena  soup 277 

tCorn  bread  No.  i 134 

t     "     bread  No.  2 134 

t     "      bread,  steamed 133 

t     "      meal  bread,  unscalded 508 

t  cream  of , 276 

t     "      cream  of,  class  rule 276 

t     "      mufHns,  blueberries 133 

t     "      muffins,  class  rule 132 

t     "      meal  mush,  to  make 73 

t     "      muffins  with  baking  powder 132 

t     "      muffins  with  egg 132 

t     "      muffins  with  sour  milk,  class  rule 133 

t     "     bread  with  sour  milk  and  soda 135 


544  INDEX 

tCorn  bread  with  baking  powder 134 

"      fat  of 125 

*     "      kernel 125 

"      oysters... 59 

"     protein  of 125 

"      as  a  food  for  man 126 

"      as  an  entire  food 129 

t     "     to  can 144 

t     "      gems 133 

t     "      gems,  white  meal 133 

"    general  classes   of   123 

"      germ  of 125 

"      gluten  of 125 

"      green ' 57 

"    green  (when  in  market)    127 

t  green,  to  stew 57 

t     "      griddle  cakes  with  egg 131 

t     "      griddle  cakes  with  baking  powder 131 

t     "      griddle  cakes  (class  rule) 132 

t     "      griddle  cakes  with  sour  milk 132 

tCorned  beef ."  183 

Corn,  starch  of 125 

Cornstarch  314 

t  omelet 232 

t  pudding  (home  rule) 345 

t  pudding  (class  rule) 345 

Corn,   to  dry    46 

tCottage  cheese 234 

t        "  "      sandwich '. 138 

tCottage  pudding 428 

t       "        pudding  (class  rule) 428 

tCrabapple  and  plum  jelly 158 

t         "          butter 162 

t         "          jelly 156 

tCracker  or  toast  gruel 331 

tCranberryade 517 

tCranberry  and  grape  jelly 159 

t  and  apple  jelly  (class  rule) 157 

t         "          and  apple  jelly 157 

t         "         'water 33* 

tCranberries,  to  stew 150 

t  to  stew  (class  rule) 150 

tCreams,  almond 476 


INDEX.  545 

tCream   cake   (home   rule) 426 

t  "       cake  (class  rule) 426 

t  "        candy  (class  rule) 476 

t  "        candy,  Mrs.  Clark 475 

t  "        candy    475 

Cream 317 

tCreams,  caramel  No  I , 473 

t  "        caramel  No  2 474 

t  "        chocolate 474 

t  "        orange    476 

t  "        peppermint  476 

f  "        wintergreen 476 

f  Cream,  caramel 355 

t  "       chocolate 341 

t  "       coffee   338 

"       dressing 281 

t  "       dressing  No.  1 286 

t  "        dressing  No.  2 286 

t  "       dressing  No.  3 287 

t  ".       filling  for  pie 360 

t  "       glace 369 

t  grape 340 

f  "       ginger  (home  rule) 342 

t .  "       ginger  (class  rule) 342 

t  mock 356 

t  "       orange    339 

t  "        of  celery  : 277 

t  of  chicken  No.  1 280 

t  "       of  chicken  No.  2. 280 

t  "       of  chicken  No.  3 280 

t  "       of  chicken  No.  4 '..... 280 

t  "       of  corn 276 

t  "       of  corn  (class  rule) 276 

t  "       of  corn  and  beans 277 

t  "       of  lima  beans 277 

t  "       of  lobster  (home  rule) 279 

t  "       of  mixed  vegetables 277 

t  "       of  tartar  tea 331 

t  "       of  peas  275 

t  of  potatoes 275 

t  "        of  salsify 276 

t  "       of  split  peas 274 

t  "       of  tomatoes    .  280 


546  INDEX. 

tCream  of  tomatoes  (class  work) 280 

t      "       puffs  No.  i 349 

t      "       puffs  No.  2 350 

t      "       puffs,  filling  for  (class  rule) 350 

t      "       puffs,  filling  for  (home  rule) 350 

t      "       pie • 360 

t      "       sauce 354 

t      "       sauce  for  mixed  croquettes 485 

"       soups  and  purees 272 

t      "       strawberry 337 

t       "       tapioca   347 

t  Creamed  cabbage 53 

t        "         codfish,  evaporated  cream 491 

t        "         dates  476 

t  eggs 492 

t        "         egg  yolks 229 

t        "         hamburg  on  toast 491 

t        "        hamburg  on  toast,   (without  butter) 512 

t        "         lobster    482 

f         "          oysters .482 

t        "         potatoes  without  butter  No.  1 515 

t        "         potatoes  without  butter  No.  2 515 

t        "         turnips  without  butter 516 

tCucumber  pickles 168 

t  salad 292 

tCroquettes,  chicken 485 

t  lobster 484 

t  beet 483 

t  meat  and  rice 486 

t  "  potato 486 

t  rice 484 

t  "  to  saute 486 

tCroutons 261 

tCrust  coffee 334 

tCurrant  and  cherry  jelly 158 

t       "       and  elderberry  sauce 150 

t       "       and  huckleberry  sauce 15° 

t       "       and  raspberry  sauce 150 

t       "       and  raspberry  jelly 157 

t       "       and  strawberry  jelly 158 

t       "       and  red  raspberry  salad 296 

t       "       jelly 155 

t       "       shrub  .  331 


INDEX.  547 

tCurrant    sherbert    373 

tCurrants,   to  clean    478 

t  Curry  powder 175 

t Curried  eggs 227 

tCustard,  arrow  root 335 

t       "        baked 344 

t       "        baked,  class  rule 344 

t       "        beef 335 

t        "        basis  for  ice  cream 369 

t       "        boiled  (home  rule) 344 

t       "        boiled  (class  rule) 344 

t        "         caramel 344 

t        "        nut  filling  for  cake 504 

t       "        pie  (class  rule) 358 

t       "        pie  (home  rule) 358 

t       "        yolk 345 

t       "        yolk   (class  rule) 345 

tCuts  from  forequarters  to  carve 218 

tCutlets,  lobster 484 

tDates,  creamed 474 

t      "      stuffed 477 

tDesserts 336 

tDessert,  a  delicate 342 

t                  hygienic * 519 

tDessicated  or  shredded  string  beans 61 

t  Dewberries,  to  can 143 

Dextrine  of  wheat. 80 

t  Deviled  meats 493 

Diastase 78 

Dietaries 383 

Dietary  studies 383-386 

Diet  and  foods 407 

"      liquid 325 

Digestibility  of  foods 414 

of  cheese 237 

of  eggs 222 

of  raw  meat 191 

Dinners 523,  524 

*Dinner  table  laid  for. . . . 457 

4 '       menu  for 457 

' '        five  course 525 

"        six  course 525 


548        .  INDEX. 

Dining  room  furniture 445 

"  room,  to  clean 464 

Dishes,  washing 28 

Double  Gloucester  cheese 235 

"  boiler 13 

tDoughnuts,  using  fat  instead  of  cream 435 

with  soda 435 

f  with  soda  (class  rule) 435 

t  with  baking  powder. 435 

t  raised 435 

Doughs  rendered  light  with  eggs 91 

tDrawn  butter  sauce 200 

tDressing,  cream  No.  1 286 

t  "  cream  No.  2 286 

t  "  cream  No.  3 287 

t  "  chervil 292 

t  "  French  286 

t  "  for  fowls 201 

t  mayonnaise  or  oil 285 

t  tarragon 292 

t  "  tomato 287 

tDried  apples,  to  cook 152 

t  "  apples  and  currants 152 

t  apple  pudding 351 

t  "  apple  pie 361 

t  "  fish 396 

t  "  fruit  butter 153 

"  fruit,  to  select • 308 

t  "  fruit,  to  cook 151 

t  "  apples  and  raisins  152 

vegetables  61 

tDrip  coffee 248 

tDropped  or  poached  eggs 226 

Drying,  corn 46 

string  beans 46 

Dry  beans,  to  select 307 

t  "  toast  ., 489 

"  yeast  88 

Duck,  to  carve 219 

tDumplings 187 

Duties  of  a  waitress 455,  456 

Effect  of  heat  on  gluten  in  bread  making 95 

"  of  germ  on  flour 77-78 


INDEX.  549 

Effect  of  boiling  water  on  albumen  of  meats 184 

"      of  extreme  heat  in  egg  cookery 222 

Egg  and  milk  dishes 225 

t  "  baked  in  potato  nest 228 

t  "  baked  in  tomato  cup 228 

t  "  baked 228 

t  "  gruel 331 

"  cookery,  effect  of  extreme  heat  in 222 

t  "  nog 329 

Eggs,  cooking _ 220 

"  composition  of  225 

t  "  creamed 492 

t  "  curried 227 

"  digestibility  of 222 

t  "  dropped  or  poached 226 

"      for  storage    223 

"  fresh 223 

t  "  hard  boiled 226 

"  hens' 220 

t  "  •  in  anchovy  sauce 492 

t  "  in  bulk 223 

t  "  in  rice  nest 510 

"      nutritive  value  of 224 

"  packing  of 223 

f  poached  in  milk 227 

Egg,  powders 224 

t  "  riced  on  toast 488 

t  "  sandwich  No.  i 139 

t  "  sandwich  No.  2 139. 

t  "  sandwich  No.  3 139 

t  sandwich  No.  4 140 

t  "  salad 293 

t  "  sauce 4 185 

tEggs,  scrambled  No.  1 227 

f  "  scrambled  No.  2 227 

t  "  shirred 229 

tEgg  toast 488 

Eggs,  to  select 306 

t  "  to  saute 213 

"  weight  of 224 

tEgg  yolks,  creamed 229 

tEgg  plant,  baked 60 


550  INDEX. 

tEgg  plant,  oysters  60 

t     "        "      to  cook 60 

tElderberry  and  currant  sauce 150 

tEndive,    or  winter  lettuce    44 

t       "        salad 293 

tEnglish  breakfast  tea 255 

English  cheese 235 

tEmergency,  beef  tea 263 

tEscalloped,  beef 490 

t  beef  with  macaroni 490 

t  beef  (without  butter) 511 

t  chicken,   etc 495 

t  macaroni  with  tomatoes 59 

t  mutton  490 

t  tomato  58 

tEssence,   beef 263 

Evaporated  cream , 322 

Extractives 177 

Extracts,  of  meat » 404 

Extra  work  for  each  day  of  week 462 

tFamily  hash 487 

tFarina  gruel 333 

Fats  and  oils  as  food 386 

"      of  grains 67 

Fat  of  meat 178 

"     of  wheat 79 

"    of  corn 125 

"    sources  of 386 

"    temperature  of  for  frying 203 

"    to  clarify 203 

tFederal  bread 109 

Fermentation 84 

acetous 84 

alcoholic    84 

influence  of  temperature  on 85 

"  lactic 84 

putrefactive 84 

viscous  84 

f Fig,   cake 432 

t     "      filling   432 

t     "     pudding  (home  rule) 248 

t     "     pudding  (class  rule) 349 


INDEX.  551 

tFilling,  for  banana  cake 507 

t  "  for  cake,  custard  nut 504 

t  "  •  for  cream  puffs  (class  rule) 350 

t  "  for  cream  puffs  (home  rule) 350 

t  "  for  caramel  cake • •. .  430 

t  "  for  cream  pie 360 

t  "  for  marshmallow  cake 429 

t  "  for  roll  cream  cake 427 

t  "  for  raspberry  sponge  cake 502 

t  "  for  short  cake 353 

tFingers,  lady 433 

Fire,  making  and  managing 10-13 

managing  a  wood IT 

"  managing  a  coal 12 

*Fish  and  boning  knife 193 

t  "  cakes  to  saute 212 

"  canned 397 

t  "  chowder 278 

"  dried 396 

tFish,  hash 487 

preserved  small 398 

t  "  to  bake  with  dressing 200 

t  "  to  fry 205 

t  "  to  fillet 207 

t  "  to  oven  broil 193 

t  "  to  saute 212 

"  to  select  306 

t  "  turbot 200 

"  use  of 395 

t  Flaky,  pie  crust  (class  rule) 358 

t  "  pie  crust  (home  rule) 358 

tFlaxseed,  water  (home  rule) 330 

t  "  water  (class  rule) 330 

Flour,  barm 87-88 

"  effects  of  germ  on 77*78 

t  "  gruel  332 

"       patent  81 

"  red  dog 82 

strength  of 93 

"  straight  grade 81 

t  Foamy  sauce 354 

tFondue  cheese 241 

tFondant  No.  2 47O 


552  INDEX. 

tFondant,  to  make 469 

Foods,  abuses  of 415-420 

"        classification 408 

"        digestibility 414 

Food,  and  diet 407 

"       classes  of  fried 204 

compounds  407 

"        material  combination  of 388-391 

"•       preservation  146 

"        use  of 409 

"       value 392 

"       value  of  cheese 237 

value  of  milk 316 

"       value  of  milk  and  egg  dishes 225 

"        value  of  skim  milk. 316-322 

"       value  of  wheat  cereals 82 

"       waste  of 391 

*Fowl,  in  baking  dish 201 

t     "       to  fillet  a 207 

t     "       to  stew 186 

t     "       to    fricasse 187 

t Frappe,  pineapple 519 

f Freezing,  ice  cream 367 

French,  cheese 235 

"         dressing 281 

t       "         dressing 286 

t  pancakes 1 14 

Fresh  eggs ." 223 

tFried  potatoes 205 

Friday,  work  for 467 

t  Fritters,  clam 365 

t      "          batter  for  365 

t      "          fruit    365 

tFrosting,  boiled,  without  eggs 439 

t        "         boiled  with  egg 439 

t        "          caramel 440 

t-'     •  '*• ;  •     chocolate  No.  1 439 

t        "         chocolate  No.  2 440 

t        "         chocolate 503 

t  cold  cream 440 

t        "         for  cakes 439 

t        "          milk  (class  rule) 44° 

t         "          milk  . 440 


INDEX.  553 

tFrosting,  with  fruit  juice  or  water 440 

tFrozen  apricots 380 

t      "        apples 380 

t      "        blackberries 379 

t      "        canteloupe   380 

".        dishes 366 

"        fig  -pudding. 371 

t      "        fruits    379 

t      "        meats,  to  cook. 214 

t      "        peaches  . , , 380 

t      "        pears 380 

t  raspberries  and  currants. 379 

f  rice  pudding 375 

t  strawberries 379 

t      "        tomato  salad. 288 

vegetables . . 48 

f  watermelon 380 

Fruits , 375 

tFruit,  butter  dried 153 

t  canning  without  sugar 144 

t  cake — Mrs  Lugger 432 

t     "      cake — Mrs.  Preston  432 

t  combination  for  pudding 348 

balls 473 

t     "      filling  for  cake 438 

t     "      fritters  365 

t  Fruits,   frozen 379 

tFruit,   ice   cream 370 

t  juices  and  syrups 159 

t     "       omelet 231 

preserves  * 162,  163 

t     "        salpicon 501 

"       sauces 147 

t     "        syrups 159 

to  select 306 

t     "       syrup  for  flavoring  ice  cream 370 

t     "       to  glace 441 

t     "       to  saute 215 

t     "        vinegar 167 

Frying 33 

203 

"       in  deep  fat 33-34 

*     "       kettle  and  basket..  203 


554  INDEX. 

Frying   things  of  importance  in 204 

tFrizzled  beef 490 

tFudge      475 

Fuels    3 

Full  cream  cheddar  cheese 236 

Functions  of  protein  compounds 410 

of  nutrients • 409 

*Game  carver 218 

Garnishes  for  food 298 

Gasoline 10 

range 20 

stoves,  how  to  use 120 

Gas  stoves,  how  to  use 120 

Gelatinoids 410 

Gelatine,  dishes 336 

how  to  use 336 

tGems,   corn 133 

t     "          hygienic 117 

Gem  pans 23 

Germ  of  corn 125 

General  rules  for  salads 282 

"        rules  for  serving  meals 450 

t  Giblets  with  mushrooms 492 

Ginger  176 

t      "        bread  (home  rule)   434 

t      "       cake   (class  rule) 434 

t      "       cream  (home  rule) ^ 342 

t  cream  (class  rule) 342 

t      "       sherbet... 374 

t      "       snaps f. 436 

tGinger  snaps  (class  rule) 436 

tGlace  cream 369 

Glassware,  cleaning 30 

Glucose,  use  of 412 

Gluten,  of  corn 125 

"        of  wheat 80 

"        composition  of 93 

tGold  cake 424 

tGooseberry  jelly 519 

t  pie 361 

tGoose,  to  carve 219 

tGooseberries,  to  stew,  No.  1 151 


INDEX.  555 

f  Gooseberries,  to  stew,  No.  2 151 

tGraham  bread  with  compressed  yeast 109 

t  "  griddle  cakes  (class  rule) 115 

tGranite,  strawberry 375 

"  ware  utensils 20 

Graphite  3 

tGrape  and  apple  jelly. 159 

t  "  and  cranberry  jelly;.. 159 

t  "  cream 340 

t  "  jelly 156 

t  "  juice  159 

t  "  marmalade 161 

t  "  pudding 341 

Grapes 148 

t  "  pickled  171 

t  "  spiced 170 

"  to  prepare  for  table 377 

Green  corn 127 

t  "  peas,  puree  of  (home  rule) 275 

t  "  peas,  puree  of  (class  rule) 275 

t  "  tea,  to  make 255 

t  "  tomato  pickles 169 

t  "  wild  grape  jelly 156 

tGriddle  cakes,  blueberry 115 

t  "  "  corn  (class  rule) 132 

t  "  "  corn  with  sour  milk 132 

t  "  "  graham  (class  rule) 115 

serving  131 

t  "  "  stale  bread 494 

t  "  "  stale  bread  (class  rule) 494 

t  "  "  wheat • 114 

t  "  "  with  baking  powder 115 

t  "  "  of  corn  meal  with  baking  powder 131 

t  "  "  with  corn  meal  and  egg 131 

t  "  "  with  sour  milk 115 

t  "  "  with  whole  wheat  or  graham 115 

Griddles,  iron 22 

Gruel,  arrowroot 332 

t  "  barley  332 

t  "  cracker  or  toast 33* 

t  "  egg 331 

t  "  farina  333 

t  "  flour 332 


556  INDEX. 

tGruel,  Indian  meal   333 

t     "        oatmeal 332 

t     "        rice  331 

t  rice  and  tapioca 332 

Gruyere  cheese 235 

tGum  arabic  icing 441 

tHaggis,  Scotch 210 

tHam,  sandwich  No.  I 138 

t  sandwich  No.  2 138 

t  "  to  boil 186 

t  to  saute 212 

f  "  to  select 305 

tHamburg,  creamed,  on  toast 512 

tHash,  balls,  to  saute 212 

t  "  cakes  487 

t  family  - 487 

t  "  fish 487 

t  omelet  232 

t  "  potato 486 

.t  rice  and  sausage 486 

turkey  and  oyster 488 

tHashed  brown  potatoes  209 

tHard  boiled  eggs 226 

tHard  sauce 354 

Heat,  of  oven  for  bread  and  rolls 122 

of  oven  for  baking-powder  biscuit 122 

"  of  oven  for  soda  biscuit. . . » ; 122 

Henry's  composition  of  "Red  Dog"  flour 94 

Hen's  eggs  220 

t  High-bush  cranberry  and  apple  jelly 158 

Hints  for  busy  housekeepers 499-500 

tHokey  poky  ice  cream 370 

Home-made  baking  powder 91 

candies 469 

t  "  "  vinegar 156 

t  "  "  yeast 106 

t  "  "  yeast  bread 106 

Holland  cheese 235 

tHollandaise  sauce  No.  1 53 

t  sauce  No.  2 54 

t  sauce  without  butter , 513 

t  sauce  without  butter  No.  2 513 


INDEX.  557 

tHominy,  coarse,  to  cook 72 

t  "  fine,  to  cook 73 

Horseradish 176 

t  "  sauce 495 

tHot  lemonade,  No.  i 330 

t  "  lemonade,  No,  2 330 

t  "  potato  salad 291 

Hotel  range,  how  to  use 120 

tHot  water,  pie  crust 360 

*  "  "  pot,  "Old  Time 247 

.Housekeepers,  hints  for .-449-500 

How  to  use  gelatine 336 

tHubbard  squash,  to  cook 56 

tHuckleberry  and  currant  sauce 150 

t  pie  362 

tHygienic,  coffee 248 

t  dessert 519 

t  "  gems  117 

t  "  muffins 117 

tlce  cream,  brown  bread 370 

"  caramel 368 

t  "  "  custard  basis 369 

chocolate  No.  i 368 

t"  "  chocolate  No.  2 368 

chocolate  sauce 507 

freezing 367 

t  "  fruit  370 

hoky  poky 370 

t  "  "  pistachio 371 

t  "  "  plain 368 

t"  "  to  mold 367 

t"  "  tutti  fruitti 370 

t  "  "  with  fruit  syrup • 370 

tlce  water 371 

t  "  "  jelly  flavored 518 

tlcing,  gum  arabic 441 

t  "  white  of  egg 441 

Important  points  for  the  nurse 327-328 

tlndian  meal  gruel 332 

t  "  pudding 352 

Influence  of  temperature  on  fermentation 85 

*Interior  of  dining  room , 462 


558  INDEX. 

Invalid  cookery   .324-329 

*Invalid's  tray   324 

tjam,  rhubarb  No.  1 167 

t  "      rhubarb  No.  2 167 

Java  coffee    246 

tjelly,  amber  (class  rule) 340 

t     "      apple 155 

t     "      apple    34i 

t  apple  and  quince  158 

t     "      blackberry  and  currants    5*9 

t     "      coffee  33§ 

t  crabapple    156 

t     "      cranberry  and  apple 157 

t     "      cranberry  and  apple  (class  rule) 157 

t     "      currant    155 

t     "      currant  and  cherry  v 158 

t     "      currant  and  strawberry 158 

t     " '     currant  and  raspberry  157 

t     "      flavored  ice  water   518 

t    "      grape   156 

t     "      grape  and  apple 159 

t     "      grape  and  cranberry   159 

t     "      green  wild  grape 156 

t     "      gooseberry  519 

t     "      high  bush  cranberry   158 

t     "      lemon   (class  rule) 339 

t     "      lemon   (home  rule) 338 

*     "       making 141 

"      making 154 

t     "      orange  339 

t    "      orange  (class  rule) 339 

t     "      peach   337 

t     "      peaches  in  ; 338 

t     "      plum  and  crabapple  158 

t     "      prunes  in  (class  rule) 340 

t     "      quince    157 

t     "      raspberries  in  338 

t     "      red  raspberries  and  apple 159 

t     "      rhubarb  and  apple  158 

t     "      seamoss 334 

t     "       strawberry    339 

t     "      strawberries  in 337 


INDEX.  559 

Jelly,  to  make  clear 154 

Jenkin's  analyses  of  cereals  75 

analyses  of  corn,  etc 124 

tjoe's  sponge  cake 424 

Joint  of  meat  to  carve 217 

Jordan  and  Hall,  composition  of  flour. 94 

tjuice,  beef  264 

t      "      grape    159 

tjulienne  soup  265 

tjunket  whey 518 

Kerosene    10 

stoves,  how  to  use  120 

*Kernel  of  corn    125 

tKisses    437 

*Kitchen,  plan  of  for  farm  14 

range,  how  to  use  120 

the 16 

utensils    19 

*  Knives,  kitchen 22 

tKoumis   329 

Lactic  fermentation  84 

tLamb,  breast  of,  with  tomato  sauce 186 

t      "      broth   333 

t      "          "      to  make   264 

"      chops  of  * 183 

"      chuck  of 183 

"      crown  of 183 

"      leg  of 183 

"      neck  of  183 

"      saddle  of 182-183 

"      shoulder  of   183 

t      "      to  cook  a  breast  of  185 

t      "      to  roast  a  leg  of 199 

"      to  select  305 

"      uses  of  cuts  of 182 

tLady  fingers   433 

tLaggard's  omelet  (class  rule)  233 

t        "          omelet  (home  rule)    232 

f  Larding  meats,  etc 206 

*Last  cut  of  round  steak 189 

tLeft  over  salad 509 

tLemon,  and  orange  peel,  candied 166 


560  INDEX. 

tLemon  jelly  (class  rule)  339 

t  "  jelly  (home  rule)  338 

t  "  pie  362 

t  "  pie  (class  rule)  362 

punch  374 

sauce  354 

t  sherbet 373 

squeezer 23 

tLemonade,  cold 517 

t  hot  No.  i , 330 

t  "  hot  No.  2 330 

Lemons,  to  prepare  for  table 377 

tLemon  whey 333 

tLentil  pudding  62 

tLentils,  puree  of 274 

Lettuce  43 

t  "  and  cheese  sandwich 138 

t  "  sandwich  , -. 137 

t  "  salad — chervil  dressing  292 

t  "  salad — cooked  dressing  293 

t  "  salad — French  dressing 292 

t  "  salad — tarragon  dressing  292 

tLight  omelet 363 

tLinen  pie  277 

Liquid  diet    325 

Liquid  fuels 8 

yeast  bread  108 

tLiver,  balls  to  saute  . . .  j 213 

t  "  to  saute : 212 

tLoaf  cake  from  bread  dough  HI 

"  sugar 412 

Lobster  398 

tLobster,  bisque  (home  rule) 279 

t  "  bisque  or  cream  of  lobster  (class  rule) 279 

t  "  creamed  482 

t  "  cream  of  (home  rule) 279 

t  "  croquettes  or  cutlets 484 

t  "  salad  295 

t  "  to  cook  a 479 

t  "  to  open 479 

Losses  of  carbon  in  bread  making 99 

"  of  dry  matter  in  bread  making 98 

"  in  cooking  cabbage 53 


INDEX.  561 

Lunch  baskets   136 

*      "       basket,  child's  136 

"       dishes   479 

Luncheon   453 

simple  family 454 

table  laid  for  354 

t  sweet  potatoes 481 

Macaroni 313 

t  escalloped  with  tomatoes 59 

t  "  in  tomato  cups 481 

select  307 

t  with  cheese  243 

t  "  with  escalloped  beef 490 

tMacaroons,  almond 437 

t  cocoanut  437 

tMacedoine  pudding  343 

t  punch  374 

t  sauce  with  meat  pie 483 

tMackerel,  broiled  194 

tMade  mustard 495 

Maize  or  Indian  corn 123-135 

Making,  cake  421 

jelly  154 

"  pastry 356 

Manufacture   of  tea    233 

Malt  vinegar  167 

tMaple  and  nut  bar 472 

t  "  and  nut  bar  (class  rule) 472 

t  cream  472 

"  sugar 412 

t  "  sugar  sauce  353 

Marketing,  care  of  foods -. 301-303 

tMarbled,  chocolate  cake 43i 

tMarinating,  meats  for  salad 285 

Marmalades  160 

tMarmalade,  apple  162 

t  "  grape  161 

t  peach  1 60 

t  raspberry  161 

t  "  rhubarb 160 

t  "  rhubarb  and  apple 161 

tMarshmallows  475 


562  INDEX. 

TMarshmallow,  cake 429 

tMaud's  cake   430 

Mayonnaise  dressing  282 

t  or  oil  dressing 285 

Meats  177 

tMeat  and  rice  croquettes   486 

t     "      boiling   183-184 

"       broths    260 

Meats,  cooked  together  in  soup  stock 259 

"       comparative  food  value  of 400-404 

t      "       deviled   493 

tMeat,  dressing,  seasoning  for 202 

"       extract    404 

"      fat  of 178 

"      for  food,  value  of 178 

tMeats,   larding   205 

Meat  pie,  macedoine  sauce '. 483 

t      "       mince    365 

t      "      pie  with  potato  crust  483 

t      "      pie,  rice  crust  483 

t  pie  with  tomato  sauce  483 

t      "      sauce 494 

t      "      souffle  489 

t  souffle   (class  rule)    489 

Meats,   stewing 183-184 

Meat,  uses  and  abuses  of 394-406 

waste  in  trimming 195 

*Melons  cut  in  different  ways.  .  .* 378 

"        cut  in  fancy  shapes 378 

*Measures  and  weights  27 

Measuring    26 

Menu  for  dinner   457 

tMeringue  for  pie 361 

tMeringued  rice 347 

Methods  of  rendering  dough  light 89-92 

Middlings   80 

Milk    315-322 

and  egg  dishes   225 

and  egg  dishes,  food  value  of 225 

"      as  a  perfect  food   315 

t     "    -  charlotte  (class  rule)   342 

t  charlotte   (home  rule)    343 

"      contamination  of   319 


INDEX.  563 

tMilk  frosting 440 

t  frosting  (class  work)  440 

"  preserving 326 

t  shake  . . 329 

t  "  sherbet  373 

some  ways  of  using  325 

souring  of 320 

sugar 318 

t  "  toast  .335 

tMince  meat  365 

Mineral  matter  of  wheat 80 

tMint  sauce  for  roast  of  lamb 200 

Miscellaneous  478 

tMiss  Pike's  white  cake  429 

tMixed,  broths  with  tomato  270 

t  "  fruit  salad  No.  I , 297 

t  "  fruit  salad  No.  2 297 

t  seasoning  for  salad  No.  1 287 

t  "  seasoning  for  salad  No.  2 287 

t  "  seasoning  for  salad  No.  3 285 

"  soups 267 

t  "  soup  (class  rule)  270 

t  "  soup  (home  rule)  ' 270 

t  "  tomato  soup 270 

t  "  vegetable,  cream  of  277 

t  "  vegetable  puree  No.  i 277 

t  "  vegetable  puree  No.  2 278 

t  "  vegetable  soup  (class  rule)  272 

t  "  vegetable  soup  (home  rule) 272 

Mocha  coffee  246 

tMock  cream  : 356 

t  "  bisque  sauce  484 

t  "  pate  de  foie  gras 493 

t  "  terrapin  480 

Monday,  work  for 462 

tMousse,  strawberry  370 

tMuffins,  corn  (class  rule) 132 

t  "  corn,  with  egg  132 

t  "  corn,  with  baking  powder  132 

t  "  corn,  with  blueberries  133 

t  "  corn,  with  sour  milk  (class  rule) 133 

tMuffins.  hygienic H7 

t  "  hygienic JI7 


564  INDEX. 

tMuffins,  rice   . . 117 

t        ''        wheat  and  graham,  sour  milk 116 

t        "        wheat  and  graham   (class  rule) 116 

t        "        wheat  with  baking  powder 117 

t        "        whole  wheat  raised  with  egg  118 

t  whole  wheat  or  graham  with  baking  powder 116 

t        "        with  white  flour  118 

tMulled  buttermilk  331 

tMullagatawny   soup    266 

tMushes  cheese   244 

t  Mush  to  saute   211 

tMushroom  and  oyster  patties  . . . : 482 

t  sauce    485 

t  sauce,  veal  in 490 

t  with  giblets   . .  493 

Mustard 175 

t  for  cold  meats   495 

t         "          sandwich    138 

Mutton,  breast  of 182 

t         "        broth,  to  make 264 

t  chops,  to  cook  214 

t        "        escalloped    •. 490 

t        "        fat,  to   clarify    479 

"        flank  of 182 

"        leg  of 182 

"        loin  of 181 

"        names  of  cuts  182 

Mutton,  neck  of  ". 182 

rack  of   182 

what  to  serve  with  199 

' :-" ,         shoulder  of 182 

*      "          side  of 182 

t      "          to  boil  a  leg  of 185 

t      "          to  carve  a  saddle  of 218 

t       "          to  roast  a  leg  of 199 

to  select  305 

uses  of  cuts  of 181 

Neufchatel  cheese  235 

tNog,  egg  329 

tNon  butter  sauce   516 

tNoodle,  broth 265 

tNoodles,  for  soup 261 


INDEX.  56S 

tNoodle,   soup    . . .  / 268 

tNun's  puffs   349 

Nurses,  important  points  for   327-328 

Nutrients,   classification   of    409 

elements   of    407 

functions   of   410 

Nutritive  value  of  eggs   224 

Nuts  380 

t  candied 477 

t     "      to  glace 441 

tNut  bread    134 

t     "     custard  cake 503 

t     "     filling  for  layer  cake 438 

t     "     loaf  cake 508 

tNut  roll    472 

Nutmeg 173 

tOatmeal,  coarse  to  make  mush  of 73 

t        "  '        cookies 437 

t  fine,  to  make  mush  of 74 

t         "          gruel    382 

tOats  rolled  to  make  mush  of 74 

Objects  of  serving  soups  256 

"        of  sulphuring  apples   308 

tOdds  and  ends  soup  (class  rule) 272 

t    "      and  ends  soup  (home  rule) 272 

Offal 405 

Oils  and  fats  as  food   386 

tOil  dressing 285 

tOkra  soup  (class  rule)   269 

t  soup  (home  rule)   269 

tOmelet,  caramel  (home  rule) 231 

t        "         cheese  232 

t       "        cornstarch 232 

t        "        fruit     230 

t        "        ham 232 

t        "        laggard   (class  rule) 233 

t        "        laggards  (home  rule) 232 

t        "        light    229 

t        "        plain    230 

t        "        tomato    231 

tOne  Crusted  apple  pie   361 

t     "     egg  cake    505 

tOnions,  cooked  with  milk  55 


566  INDEX. 

tOnions,    smothered    ' 55 

t      "        stuffed   494 

t      "        to  cook 55 

t      "        to  cook,  plain 514 

t      "        to  saute    210 

tOnion,  juice  to  procure  478 

t      "        salad  289 

tOrange  and  grape  salad 297 

t      "        and  lemon  peel  candied  166 

t      "        cream  339 

t      "        creams    476 

t      "        filling  for  cake 438 

t      "        jelly 339 

t      "        jelly   (class  rule) 339 

t      "        pudding    341 

t      "        sherbet    373 

tOranges,  to  prepare  for  table  377 

tOrangeade,  cold   517 

Oven,  broiling   33 

Ovens,  how  to  test  for  bread 121 

"        how  to  test  for  butter  cake 121 

"        how  to  test  for  dough  made  light  with  egg 121 

"        how  to  test  for  pastry 121 

"        how  to  test  heat  of 121 

Oysters 297-298 

t      "        creamed    482 

t        "        panned   482 

tOysters,  scalloped 482 

t        "        to   broil 194 

t        "        to   fry 206 

tOyster  and  mushroom  patties 482 

t      "       patties    482 

t      "       soup    278 

t      "       stew    279 

Packing  eggs  223 

tPanama  sherbet  373 

Pan  broiling  33 

tPancakes,  French  114 

tPandowdy 361 

tPantry 24 

tPanned  oysters  482 

Paraffine   .                                                                154 


INDEX.  567 

tParfait  coffee  369 

tParisian  barm 88 

tParker  house  rolls  no 

Parmesan  cheese 236 

Parsley  175 

t  "  butter 194 

t  "  sauce 185 

tParsnips,  to  cook  54 

t  to  saute  209 

*Passing  a  dish  when  serving 452 

Pastes  and  starch  preparations 312 

"  common  forms 312 

*  "  used  in  soups  312 

tPaste,  puff 358 

Pastry  356 

t  "  (class  rule)  360 

t  for  one  pie  crust  357 

t  "  with  baking  powder  360 

Patent  flour  81 

t  Patties,  oyster  482 

tPeach  jelly 337 

t  "  marmalade 160 

t  "  pie  361 

't  preserves  165 

t  "  tapioca  pudding  348 

tPeaches,  frozen  380 

t  "  in  jelly  33$ 

t  "  pickled  170 

t  "  to  can  144 

t  "  to  can  whole 144 

t  "  to  preserve 164 

tPeanut  candy  471 

t  '"  nouget  471 

tPeanuts,  salted 381 

tPears,  and  prunellos,  stewed  152 

t  "  frozen  380 

t  "  to  can  whole  144 

t  "  to  preserve  164 

tPeas,  cream  of 275 

t  "  to  can  145 

t  "  to  cook 55 

t  "  to  cook  dry .' 516 

tPeat  '. 7 


568  INDEX. 

tPepper    , 174 

tPeppermint  creams    476 

tPickling 167 

tPickled  berries 171 

t  cabbage 170 

t      "        grapes    171 

t       "        peaches    170 

tPickles,  cucumbers  168 

t  green  tomato   169 

t         "        ripe  cucumbers 169 

t         "         sweet   cucumber    169 

t  tomato,  sweet 169 

t  watermelon  rind 168 

tPicnic   sandwich    138 

tPie  crust,  baking  powder 358 

t  "        "        flaky   (class  rule)    .-. 359 

t  "        "        flaky  (home  rule)  V 358 

t  "  with  hot  water 360 

tPie,  apple 363 

t    "     apple  custard  360 

t    "     cherry  362 

t    "     chicken    495 

t    "     chicken  (class  rule)  496 

t    "     cream 360 

t    "     custard   (class   rule)    358 

t    "     custard  (home  rule)   359 

t    '      dried   apple    361 

t    "     gooseberry 361 

t    "     huckleberry    362 

t    "     lemon    362 

t    '      lemon  (class  rule)    362 

t    "     linen    363 

t    "     one   crust  apple    ^61 

t    "     peach    361 

t    "     potato  No.   i 363 

t    "     potato  No.  2 364 

t    "     rhubarb    363 

t    '      squash    364 

t    "     squash    (class  rule) 364 

"     to  make   357 

tPieplant  shortcake    353 

t         "        to  can   142 

t         "        to  steam  .  15.3 


INDEX.  569 

tPieplant,  to  stew   151 

tPilaf,  Turkish  . • 493 

tPineapple  frappe  519 

t                    preserved 165 

t                    sherbet 372 

t                    sorbet  , 372 

t                    soup 519 

t                     to  prepare  for  table 377 

tPistachio  ice  cream   371 

Phosphate  baking  powders   90 

*Placing  a  dish  when  serving   451 

tPlain  cake   423 

t             cake — chocolate  frosting    502 

t             caper  sauce   . 510 

t            egg  sauce  511 

t     "      ice  cream 368 

t     "       macedoine  meat  sauce 516 

t     "       meat  sandwich  138 

t             molasses  candy 471 

t     "       omelet    .  . 230 

t     "       parsley  sauce    511 

t     "      sauce  for  carrots 512 

t     "      tomato  sauce    516 

t     "       veal  pot  pie  511 

t     "       white  beans  in  cream 514 

tPlum  and  crab  apple  jelly  158 

tPlums  and  prunes  to  stew 152 

t      "       preserved   •. 166 

t              spiced    17° 

tPolishing  silver 468 

tPopcorn  cake  .t 499 

t        "        and  nut  cake 499 

t        "        balls   498 

t         "        balls,  tinted 499 

tPopovers  (class  rule)    113 

t        "          (home  rule)  113 

Porcelain  utensils   20 

Port  du  Salut  cheese 235 

Pork,  back 181 

t     "       chops,  to  saute 213 

"      ham 181 

loin  of 181 

"      middle  .                                                                               .  181 


570  INDEX. 

Pork,  names  of  cuts  of 181 

*     "      side  of • 181 

"   shoulder 181 

spare  ribs  of 181 

t  "   to  carve  a  loin  of 218 

t  "   to  roast 198 

t     "      to  roast  spare  ribs  of 198 

"      to  select 305 

"      uses  of  cuts 181 

tPotatoes,  baked  49 

t        "         brown  hashed  488 

t        "         cream  of  275 

t  creamed   50 

t  creamed  without  butter  No.  i 515 

t        "         creamed  without  butter  No.  2 515 

t        "         emergency 49 

t        "         fried , 205 

t        "         luncheon  sweet 481 

t        "         mashed 49 

t        "         plain  boiled 48 

t  puree  of  (class  rule) 275 

t        "         puree  of  (home  rule) 276 

t         "          riced    50 

t        "         sweet 481 

t        "         to  saute  sweet 209 

tPotato  and  beet  salad 292 

t      "       balls  to  saute 209 

t      "       croquettes     486 

t      "       crust,  meat  pie  '. 483 

t      "       hash    486 

t      "       pie  No.  i 363 

t      "       pie  No.  2 364 

t      "       puffs  with  cheese  240 

"       ricer    21 

t      "       salad  (class  rule)   291 

t      "       salad  (home  rule)   291 

t      "       salad,  hot   291 

t      "       straws 205 

t      "       yeast 106 

t      "       yeast  bread 108 

tPot  pie,  veal 187 

tPound  cake  432 

tPoultry,  to  select   305 


INDEX.  571 

tPowder,   beef   334 

Prepared  cereals   64-72 

Preservatives  146 

Preserves 162-163 

t  apple  and  quince  165 

t  peaches    165 

t  tomato   165 

t  water  melon  rind 166 

Preserving  milk    326 

tPreserved  citron 166 

t  pineapple 165 

t         "          plums    166 

small  fish 398 

tPressed  chicken    491 

tPrime  ribs  of  beef  and  short  loin  of  beef , 196 

Production  of  soluble  corbohydrates  in  bread  making....     99 

Proportion  of  flour  and  liquid  in  bread  making 102 

Protein,  compounds,  functions  of 410 

foods,  cooking  of  237-238 

of  corn 125 

tPrunes  and  apricots,  to  stew 152 

t      "       and  plums,  to  stew 152 

t      "       in  jelly  (class  rule)   340 

tPrunellos  and  pears  stewed 152 

Ptomaines    396 

tPudding,    apple 350 

t  apple   tapioca 347 

t  baked  apple 351 

t        "          baked  apple  dumpling 365 

t  bread    352 

t  caramel    345 

t  caramel  with  water 345 

t  cornstarch    (class  rule) 345 

t  cornstarch  (home  rule) 345 

t          "          cheese    ; 241 

t         "          cottage   (class  rule) 428 

t        "          cottage   (home  rule) 428 

t  dried  apple 351 

t         "          fig  (class  rule) 249 

t  fig   (home  rule) 348 

t  frozen    fig 371 

t  frozen    rice 341 

t        "          grape     34i 


S?2  INDEX. 

tPudding,  Indian  352 

t  macedoine  • 343 

t  orange  ' 341 

peach  tapioca 348 

t  rennet  346 

t  rice  (class  rule) 346 

t  rice  (home  rule) 346 

t  snow  (gelatine)  340 

t  "  snow  (rice) 346 

t  steamed  fruit 352 

t  strawberry  337 

t  strawberry  tapioca 347 

t  "  suet  (class  rule) 352 

t  suet  (home  rule) 352 

t  tapioca  snow 347 

t  Yorkshire  197 

Puddings  and  pudding  sauces 341 

tPuffs,  cream  No.  i . . 349 

t  cream  No.  2 350 

t  nun's  349 

tPuff,  paste.. 358 

tPunch,  lemon 374 

t  macedoine  374 

t  "  W.  C.  T.  U 374 

Purees  and  cream  soups 272 

tPuree  of  baked  beans 273 

t  "  of  black  beans 273 

t  of  green  peas  (home  rule) 275 

t  of  green  peas  (class  rule) 275 

t  "  of  lentils  274 

t  "  of  mixed  vegetables  No.  1 277 

t  of  mixed  vegetables  No.  2 278 

t  of  potatoes  (class  rule) 275 

t  "  of  potatoes  (home  rule) 276 

t  "  of  salmon  : 279 

t  of  split  peas 274 

t  of  tomatoes  274 

*  "  sieve 21 

Putrefactive    fermentation 84 

tQuince  and  apple  jelly 158 

t       "       and  apple  preserves 165 

t        "       jelly    157 


INDEX.  573 

tRaised  doughnuts 435 

tRaisins,  stuffed 477 

t  "  to  stone 478 

tRange  17 

t  "  gasoline  20 

t  "  hotel  16 

t  "  hotel,  how  to  use 120 

inner  construction  of 8,  9,  II 

t  "  kitchen  18 

t  "  kitchen,  how  to  use 120 

tRabbit,  to  saute 211 

tRarebit,  welsh 241 

tRaspberry  and  currant  jelly 157 

t  and  currant  sauce 150 

t  marmalade 161 

t  sponge  cake 502 

tRaspberries  and  currants  frozen 379 

t  and  currant  soup 518 

t  in  jelly 338 

t  to  can 143 

tRaspberryade  518 

tRaw  beef  sandwich 334 

t  "  fruit  as  food 375 

tRefrigerator,  cleaning 32 

tReasons  for  cooking  vegetables  in  water 259 

t  "  for  scalding  cornmeal 130 

"  for  using  cold  water  in  making  soup  stock 259 

Red,  dog  flour 82 

t  "  raspberry  and  apply  jelly 159 

Rennet  234 

t  "  pudding  346 

Rendering  doughs  light  with  baking  powder 89 

Rhubarb  44 

t  "  and  apples 150 

t  "  and  apple  jelly 158 

t  "  and  apple  marmalade 161 

t  "  charlotte  353 

t  "  jam  No.  i 167 

t  "  jam  No.  2 167 

t  "  marmalade  160 

t  "  pie 363 

tRibbon,  cake 430 

*Ribs  and  short  loin  of  beef 195 


574   ..,..  -  INDEX. 

tRice  and  sausage  hash 486 

t     "      and  tapioca  gruel 332 

t     "      croquettes   484 

t  croquettes,   sauce   for    485 

t     "      crust,  meat  pie 483 

t     "      gruel  331 

t  muffins   117 

t     "      nest,    with   egg 510 

t  pudding  (class  rule) 346 

t  pudding  (home  rule) 346 

t  to   cook 74 

t     "      to  cook  in  water 58 

t  to   steam 57 

t  with    cheese 243 

tRiced  egg  on  toast 488 

tRipe  cucumber  pickles 169 

tRissoles  365 

tRolls  and  pans 107 

t  parker  house no 

tRoll,    pans 23 

t     "      cake  (class  rule) 426 

t    "      cake  (home  rule) 426 

Roasting 33 

Roasting 195 

tRoast  beef  salad 295 

t      "      lamb,  mint  sauce 200 

Roquefort    cheese 235 

Rule,  for  canning  fruits 142 

"      for  canning  vegetables : 142 

tRye   bread 109 

Saddle  of  lamb,  to  carve 218 

Sago 175 

Salads,  general  rules  for 282 

tSalad,  apple  No.  1 296 

t      "      apple  No.  2 297 

t      "      apple  and  nut 297 

t      "      asparagus    290 

t      "      banana   298 

t      "      banana  (class  rule) 298 

t      "      beet  292 

t      "      cabbage   290 

t      "      cabbage,   cream   dressing 291 


. 

usj. 

,*DEX.  ^^ 


tSalad,  carrot 289 

t  "  celery  293 

t  "  celery  and  nut 293 

t  "  chicken 295 

Salads,  classes  of  284 

tSalad,  cucumber  292 

t  "  currant  and  red  raspberry 296 

"  dressings,  classes  of 181 

t  "  dressing,  cooked 285 

t  "  egg  293 

t  "  endive 293 

t  dressing  for  lettuce  sandwich 138 

t  "  frozen  tomato 288 

t  "  hot  potato 291 

t  "  lettuce  . .  292 

t  "  lettuce,  chervil  dressing 292 

t  "  lettuce,  cooked  dressing 293 

t  "  lettuce,  french  dressing 292 

t  "  lobster  295 

"  making  283 

t  "  mixed  fruit  No.  1 297 

t  "  mixed  fruit  No.  2 297 

t  "  onion  289 

t  orange  and  grape 297 

t  "  potato  (class  rule) 291 

t  "  potato  (home  rule) 291 

f  potato  and  beet 292 

t  "  roast  beef 295 

t  "  salmon  , 295 

t  salmon  and  celery  (class  rule) 294 

t  "  salmon  and  celery  (home  rule) 294 

f  salmon  and  tomato  (class  rule) 294 

t  "  salmon  and  tomato  (home  rule) 295 

t  "  salmon,  egg  garnish 294 

t  shrimp 295 

t  "  string  beans 290 

t  "  sweet  bread 296 

t  "  tomato  287 

t  "  tomato,  celery  and  nut 289 

t  "  tomato  in  tomato  cups 288 

t  "  water  cress 293 

t  "  winter  tomato 288 

Salads,  salad  dressing  and  garnishes 281-284 


576  INDEX. 

tSally  Lunns  117 

tSalmon  and  celery  salad  (class  rule) 294 

t  "  and  celery  salad  (home  rule) \  .  294 

t  "  and  tomato  salad  (class  rule) 294 

t  "  and  tomato  salad  (home  rule) 295 

t  puree  of 279 

t  "  salad 295 

f  salad,  egg  garnish 294 

tSalpicon  fruit .  501 

t  Salsify,  cream  of 276 

t  "  or  vegetable  oyster,  to  cook 59 

t  "  to  cook  plain 515 

t  "  to  saute 208 

tSalt  rising  bread 109 

tSalted  almonds • 381 

t  "  peanuts , 381 

tSalt,  use  of 147 

Sandwiches  137 

tSandwich,  cheese  No.  i 139 

t  cheese  No.  2 139 

f  celery  139 

t  celery  and  nut 139 

t  cottage  cheese 138 

t  egg  No.  i 139 

t  egg  No.  2 139 

t  egg  No.  3 139 

t  egg  No.  4 140 

t  ham  No.  i 138 

t  "  ham  No.  2 138 

t  lettuce  137 

t  lettuce  and  cheese 138 

t  lettuce,  dressing  for 138 

t  mustard  138 

t  picnic  138 

t  plain  meat 138 

t  raw  beef 334 

t  sardine  140 

t  water  cress 137 

tSardine  sandwich 140 

Saturday,  work  for 468 

tSauce,  anchovy,  egg  in 492 

t  "  baked  apple 149 

t  "  bechamel  .486 


INDEX.  577 

tSauce,  bisque,  with  chicken 517 

t  "       blackberry    151 

t  "       brown    , 517 

t  "      caper    184 

t  caramel   355 

t  "      chili    . i6g 

t  "      chocolate  for  ice  .cream 507 

t  cider    apple 149 

t  "       cream    354 

t  "       currant   and   huckleberry 150 

t  currant  and  raspberry 130 

t  "      drawn  butter. 200 

t  "      egg 185 

t  elderberry  and  currant  150 

t  "  '  foamy    : 354 

t  for    croquettes 484 

t  for  escalloped    dishes 495 

t  for  light    omelet 230 

t  "      for  mixing  croquettes 485 

t  for  plain  pudding 356 

for  puddings 343,  356 

t  "      for  rice   pudding 355 

t  "       for  serving  rice  croquettes 485 

t  for  snow   pudding 340 

t  hollandaise  No.  1 53 

t  "       hollandaise  No.  2 54 

t  hollandaise,  without  butter 513 

t  hollandaise,  without  butter  No.  2 513 

t  "      hard   354 

t  horseradish    495 

t  "      lemon 354 

t  "      maple   sugar 353 

t  meat 494 

t  "      mint   200 

t  "      mock  bisque 484 

t  "      mushroom 485 

t  "      non  butter 516 

t  "      parsley 185 

t  "      plain    caper 510 

t  "      plain  egg 511 

t  "      plain,  for  carrots 512 

t  "      plain  macedoine  meat 516 

t  "      plain  parsley 511 


57.8  INDEX. 

tSauce,  plain  tomato  516 

t      "      tomato   (brown)    198 

t       "       tomato  495 

t       "      vinegar    355 

t       "       white,   without  butter 512 

t       "       white,  without  butter,  for  cabbage 513 

tSauces  for  carrots 51 

Sauteing    208 

Stewing 33-34 

tSauted,   tomatoes    58 

tSave  all  soup 270 

*Scales,    household 29 

Scalding  cornmeal,  reasons  for. 130 

tScalloped,  oysters 482 

tScrambled  eggs  No.  i 227 

t         "          eggs  No.  2 227 

tScrapple    210 

tScotch  broth  (class  rule) 201 

t      "       broth   (home   rule) * . . . 271 

t       "        haggis • . .  210 

tSea  moss  jelly 334 

tSeasoning,  for  meat  dressing 202 

t  for  salad,  mixed  No.  I 287 

t      "      for  salad,  mixed  No.  2 287 

t       "       for  salad  mixed  No.  3 287 

Serving  griddle  cakes 131 

Setting  tables  and  serving  meals ' 449 

Shad    roe 220 

tSheep's  head,  to  prepare 189 

tSherbet,   banana    372 

f        "          currant  373 

.  t  ,      "         ginger    374 

t  lemon   .  .' 373 

t        "         milk 373 

t         "          orange    373 

t  panama    .  .". 373 

t  pineapple   372 

tShirred  eggs 229 

*       "       egg,   shell  for  baking   229 

tShortcake,  filling  for 353 

t  pieplant    353 

tShoulder  cut  of  beef 198 

Shredded  or  dessicated  string  beans 61 


INDEX. 

tShrimp  salad  .............................................  295 

tShrub,  currant  ................................  .  ..........  331 

tSilver,  cake  ..............................................  424 

cleaning  .........................................     30 

"        polishing   ........................................  468 

Simple  family  luncheon  ..................................  454 

Sink,  cleaning  ..................  ..........................     31 

f  Sirloin  roast,  to  carve  ...........  .........................  217 

tSix  egg  cake  .....................................  .......  505 

Skim   cheese  .............................................  236 

"       milk,  food  value  of  .............................  316-322 

tSlaw,   cold  ..............................................  .  291 

Slosson's  composition  of  cereal  foods  .....................     75 

*Small  end,  rib  cut  of  beef  .................................   197 

t      "      fish  preserved  .....................................  398 

tSnaps,  ginger  ............................................  436 

t      "      ginger,  -  class  rule  .................................  436 

tSnow,  pudding,  gelatine   ................................  340 

t     "      pudding,  rice    .....................................  346 

t  pudding,,  sauce  for  ............  „.  .  ;  .................  341 

Soapstone  griddle  ........................................     22 

Soda  and  baking  powder,  how  to  use  .....................  112 

t     "      biscuit   (class  rule)  .................................   118 

t     "      biscuit,  heat  of  oven  for  ............................  122 

tSoft  boiled  eggs  (class  rule)  ..............................  226 

"      fruits  ...............................................  163 

Solid    fruits  ..............................................   163 

Some  ways  of  using  milk  ............................  .  ____  325 

tSorbet,    pineapple  ........................................  372 

*Sorghum  plant  ...........................................  413 

tSourHe,  caramel  (class  rule)  ..............................  343 

t  cheese   (class  rule)  ...............................  242 

t      "        cheese  (home  rule)  ..............................  242 

t      "        meat  .................  .  ..........................  489 

f      "        meat  (class  rule)  .............................          489 

Soups  and  soup  making  ..................................  256 

"       classes    of  .........................................  277 

"       thickening  for  .....................................  262 

"       what  to  serve  in  ...................................  260 

tSoup,   bread   crumb  ......................................  278 

t     "       bread  (class  rule)  .................................  278 

t     "       brown   (class   rule)  ................................  271 

t     "       corbena    ..........................................  277 


580  INDEX. 

Soup  digester 22 

t  "  julienne  265 

t  mixed  (class  rule) 270 

t  "  mixed  (home  rule) -. 270 

t  "  mixed  tomato 270 

t  "  mixed  vegetable  (class  rule) 272 

t  "  mixed  vegetable  (home  rule) 272 

t  "  mullagatawny 266 

t  "  noodle  268 

t  "  noodles  for 261 

object  of  serving 256 

t  "  odds  and  ends  (class  rule) 272 

t  "  odds  and  ends  (home  rule) 272 

t  "  okra  (home  rule) 269 

t  "  oyster  278 

t  •"  pineapple  .' 518 

t  raspberry  and  currant 518 

t  "  saveall  270 

Soup  stock,  meats  cooked  together  for 259 

"  reasons  for  using  cold  water  in  making 259 

t  "  "  to  color 258 

"  to  remove  fat  from 264 

"  to  make 257 

"  vegetables  used  for  flavoring 260 

*Soup  tureen,  ladle  and  coups 256 

Soups,    vegetable 268 

Sources  of  fat 386 

tSour  milk  and  soda  corn  bread 135 

t  "  milk  biscuit 118 

t  "  milk  griddle  cakes 115 

Souring  of  milk 320 

tSpaghetti  in  tomato  cups 481 

t  "  with  cheese 243 

Spearmint 175 

Spices  172 

tSpiced  cake  No  i 431 

t  "  cake  No.  2 43i 

t  grapes  170 

t  "  plums 170 

t  "  tomatoes 169 

Spider,  cast  iron 23 

tSplit  peas,  cream  of 274 

t  "  peas,  puree  of 274 


INDEX.  581 

Spinach 45 

to  cook 56 

tSponge  cake,  Mrs.  Caldwell 424 

f  "  cake,  Mrs.  Ewing 425 

t  cake,  Joe's  424 

t  "  cake,  raspberry 502 

tSquabs,  to  broil 193 

t  Squash,  hubbard,  to  cook 56 

t  "  pie  364 

t  "  pie  (class  rule) 364 

t  summer 57 

f  "  to  saute  summer 209 

tSquirrels,  to  carve 219 

tStale  bread  griddle  cakes , .  494 

t  bread  griddle  cakes  (class  rule) 494 

Starch,  of  corn 125 

"  of  wheat  , 20 

Steaming 33 

vegetables 48 

tSteamed  brown  bread 135 

t  "  corn  bread 133 

t  "  fruit  bread 509 

f  "  fruit  pudding 352 

Stewing ' 33,  34 

meats 183 

tStew,  oyster  279 

tStewed  beans 62 

t  chicken,  with  dumplings 5M 

t  "  prunellos  and  prunes 152 

Stilton  cheese .u 235 

Stirred   bread 102 

Stock 257 

t  "  for  aspic  jelly 267 

Store  room 25 

Stoves  89 

"  gas,  how  to  use 120 

"  gasoline,  how  to  use 120 

"  kerosene,  how  to  use 112 

Straight  grade  flour 81 

*Strainer 21 

tStrata  cheese 241 

tStrawberry  and  currant  jelly 158 

t  "  cream 337 


582  INDEX. 

tStrawberry,  granite  375 

t  jelly  337 

t  mousse 370 

pudding 337 

t  tapioca  pudding 347 

tStrawberries,  frozen 37<* 

t  in  jelly 337 

t  to  prepare  for  table 377 

t  to  preserve 164 

tStraws,  cheese  240 

t  "  cheese  No.  2 366 

t  "  cheese  No.  i 366 

t  "  .  potato  405 

Strength  of  yeast 86 

String  bean  salad 290 

"  beans  drying ' 46 

t  "  beans,  to  can 145 

Study  of  dietaries 383 

tStuffed  dates 477 

t  "  onions 494 

t  "  raisins 477 

t  "  tomatoes  58 

tSuckling  pig,  to  carve 219 

tSuet  pudding  (class  rule) 352 

t  "  pudding  (home  rule) 352 

Sugar,  cane 412 

*  "  cane  and  sugar  beet 411 

"  coloring  of 413 

loaf 412 

"  maple  412 

of  milk 318 

t  "  taffy 470 

"  use  of 147 

Summer  savory 174 

t  "  squash,  to  taste 209 

tSunshine  cake 427 

t  "  cake  (class  rule) 428 

tSweet  apples,  to  preserve 164 

t  "  cucumber  pickles 169 

"  marjorun 175 

t  "  potatoes,  baked 48 

t  "  potatoes,  browned 49 

t  "  potatoes,  luncheon 481 


INDEX.  583 

tSweet  potatoes,  to  saute 209 

t      "      tomato   pickles 169 

tSweetbreads  and  mushrooms  on  toast 479 

tSweetbread,  salad 296 

tSweetbreads,  to  cook 186 

t      "        to  prepare. 211 

t                          to  saute . 211 

tSyrup,   fruit 159 

*Table,  laid  for  breakfast 450 

*  "      laid  for  dinner 457 

laid  for  luncheon 454 

"      linen 445-448 

tTaffy,  brown  sugar 470 

t     "       white  sugar  , . ' 470 

tTamarind  water 330 

Tapioca 313 

t      "        cream 347 

"         meal   314 

t      "        snow  pudding 347 

Tarragon 175 

t        "         dressing 292 

Tartrate  baking  powders   90 

Tea 253 

"     adulterations  of 254 

t    "    beef  263 

t    "     cereal    334 

Teas,  classes  of 254 

tTea,  cream  of  tartar 331 

t    "     English  breakfast 255 

*  "     pot  and  hot  water  pot  of  a  century  ago 254 

"     manufacture  of  253 

Temperature  for  storage  of  eggs 223 

of  fat  for  frying 203 

of  oven  for  bread  baking- 103 

tTerrapin  chicken  492 

Theine   246 

The  dining  room 443-448 

protein  in  cereals 71 

"     side  board 453 

tThickening,  for  soups  262 

t        "              of  milk  and  flour 510 

Thin    doughs    111-112 


584  INDEX. 

Tilings  of  importance  in  frying 204 

Thursday,  work  for 466 

Thyme  175 

tTimbales  492 

t  cheese  (class  rule) 240 

t  cheese   240 

Tin  utensils 20 

tTinted,  popcorn  balls 499 

tToast,  apple 488 

t     "        beef 335 

t    "       cheese 242 

t     "        dry 489 

t     "        egg    488 

t  riced  eggs  on 488 

t     "        milk : 335 

t     "        Tomato 489 

t     "        water 330 

tToasted  cheese  crackers  243 

tTo  bake  apples 149 

t  "    bake  a  fish  with  dressing 200 

t  "    blanch  almonds 381 

t  "    broil  a  chicken  192 

t  "    broil  a  chop  or  steak 190 

t  "    broil  a  leg  of  mutton 185 

t  "    broil  a  squab  193 

t  "    broil  bacon 194 

t  "    broil  ham    186 

t  "    broil  oysters 194 

t  "    broil  wood  cocks   193 

t  "    can  corn 144 

t  "    can  cherries 144 

t  "    can  blueberries 143 

t  "    can  peaches 144 

t  "    can  peaches  whole 144 

t  "    can  pears  whole 144 

t  "    can  peas 145 

t  "    can  pieplant  142 

t  "    can  raspberries   143 

t  "    can  soft  berries 143 

t  "    can  string  beans 145 

t  "    can  tomatoes  145 

t  "    can  tomatoes  whole   146 

t  "    carve  a  beefsteak  .  217 


INDEX.  585 

tTo  carve  a  broiled  chicken 218 

t  "    carve  a  chicken 219 

t  "    carve  a  duck  219 

t  "    carve  a  goose   219 

t  "    carve  a  joint  of  meat 217 

t  "    carve  a  loin  of  pork 218 

f  "    carve  a  loin  of  veal 218 

t  "    carve  a  saddle  of  lamb 218 

t  "    carve  a  saddle  of  mutton. 218 

t  "    carve  a  sirloin  roast  217 

t  "    carve  a  turkey 218 

t  "    carve  a  suckling  pig  219 

t  "    carve  a  saddle  of  venison 218 

t  "    carve  cuts  from  forequarters  218 

t  "    carve  a  squirrel 219 

"    clarify  butter 208 

"    clarify  fat ! .  . .  203 

"    clarify  mutton  fat 479 

"    clean  currants   478 

'    clean  the  dining  room 464 

t  "    color  soup  stock 258 

t  "    cook  a  breast  of  lamb 185 

t  "    cook  a  lobster 479 

t  "    cook  a  pot  roast  of  beef 189 

t  "    cook  carrots  plain   512 

t  "    cook  celery  plain  514 

t  "    cook  corned  beef 186 

t  "    cook  dried  apples   152 

t  "    cook  dried  fruit 151 

f  "    cook  frozen  meats  214 

t  "    cook  onions  plain 514 

t  "    cook  peas  dry  516 

t  "    cook  salsify  plain  515 

t  "    cook  sweetbreads 186 

t  "    cook  tomatoes  plain 514 

t  "    cook  tongue 188 

f  "    cook  vegetable  oysters  plain 515 

t  "    cut  melons  in  fancy  shapes 378 

t  "    fillet  a  fish 207 

t  "    fillet  a  fowl 207 

t  "    fry  oysters  . 206 

t  "    fry  fish  205 

t  "    fricasse  a  fowl 187 


586  INDEX. 

tTo  glace  fruit   441 

t  "    glace  nuts  441 

t  "    make  black  tea 255 

t  "    make  a  butter  cake 422 

"    make  clear  jelly  154 

t  "    make  green  tea 255 

t  "    make  meringue  for  pie 361 

t  "    make  soup  stock 257 

t  "    make  cocoa 253 

t  "    make  dry  yeast 501 

t  "    make  fondant ; 469 

t  "    make  lamb  broth  264 

t  "    make  mutton  broth 264 

t  "    make  thickening  of  flour  and  water 478 

t  "    make  turkey  broth 264 

t  "    marinate  meats  for  salad 285 

t  "    mould  ice  cream 367 

t  "    open  a  lobster 479 

t  "    oven  broil  a  chicken 193 

f  "    oven  broil  a  fish 193 

t  "    poach  eggs  in  milk 227 

t  "    prepare  a  calf's  head 189 

t  "    prepare  a  sheep's  head 189 

t  "    prepare  and  roast  a  chicken 201 

t  "    prepare  and  roast  a  turkey 201 

t  "  prepare  and  saute  sweetbreads 211 

"    prepare  blackberries  for  the  table 377 

'    prepare  canteloupes  for  the  table 378 

"    prepare  grapes  for  the  table 377 

"    prepare  lemons  for  the  table 377 

"    prepare  oranges  for  the  table 377 

"   prepare  pineapples  for  the  table 377 

'    prepare  strawberries  for  the  table 377 

"    prepare  watermelon  for  the  table 377 

t  "    preserve  cherries 164 

t  "    preserve    peaches 164 

t  "    preserve  pears 164 

t  "    preserve  strawberries 164 

t  "    preserve  sweet  apples 164 

t  "    procure  onion  juice , 478 

"    remove  fat  from  soup  stock 246 

t  "    remove  onion  odor  from  hands SOT 

t  "    remove  stains  from  egg  shells 501 


INDEX.  587 

tTo  roast  a  leg  of  mutton 199 

t  "    roast  a  piece  of  beef 196 

t  "    roast  chestnuts 381 

t  "    roast  pork 198 

t  "    roast  spare  ribs  of  pork 198 

t  "    roast  veal 199 

t  "    saute  bananas 215 

t  "    saute  bread 211 

t  "    saute  cabbage   208 

t  "    saute  chicken 211 

t  "    saute  cold  meat  schapple 213 

t  "    saute  cold  mush  211 

t  "    saute  eggs 213 

t ."    saute  fish 212 

t  "    fish  cakes 212 

t  "    saute  fruits  215 

t  "    saute  ham  212 

t  "    saute  hash  balls 212 

t  "    saute  liver 212 

t  "    saute  liver  balls 213 

t  "    saute  meat  croquettes 486 

t  "   saute  mutton  chops 214 

t  "    saute  onions 210 

t  "    saute  parsnips 209 

t  "    saute  potato  balls 209 

t  "    saute  pork  chops 213 

t  "    saute  rabbit 211 

t  "    saute  salsify  208 

t  "    saute  summer  squash 209 

t  "    saute  sweet  potatoes  208 

t  "    saute  veal  chops 213 

'    serve  a  dinner 457-461 

"    select  beef 303 

"    select  berries  and  fruit 306 

"    select  butter 306 

"   select  cereals  307 

"    select  dried  fruit 308 

'   select  dry  beans 307 

"    select  eggs  306 

"   select  fish 306 

"   select  ham 305 

"    select  lamb 305 

"    select  macaroni 307 


588  INDEX. 

To    select   mutton 305 

"  select  pork 305 

'    select  poultry 305 

"    select  veal 304 

'    select  vegetables 307 

"    serve  nuts  380 

t  "    steam  pieplant 153 

t  "    stew  a  fowl 186 

t  "    stew  apples 149 

t  "    stew  apricots  and  prunes 152 

t  "    stew  cranberries  150 

t  "    stew  cranberries  (class  rule) 150 

t  "    stew  gooseberries  No.  i 151 

t  "    stew  gooseberries  No.  2 151 

t  "    stew  pieplant  151 

t  "    stew  plums  and  prunes 152 

t  "    stone  raisins 478 

tToffee 471 

tTomato,  butter 161 

t      "          butter  (class  rule) 161 

t       "          celery  and  nut  salad 289 

tTomatoes,  cream  of 280 

t                  cream  of  (class  rule) 280 

t      "          cups,  beef  hash  in 487 

t       "          dressing 287 

t      "          omelet  231 

t      "          pickles,  sweet  169 

t      "          pickles,  green 168 

t                  preserves    165 

t      "          salad 198 

t       "          salad,  winter 288 

t       "          salad 287 

t                  salad  in  tomato  cups 288 

t                  sauce — meat  pie 483 

t                  sauce 495 

t      "          toast  489 

t      "          with  beef  broth  (class  rule) 264 

t      "          with  beef  broth  (home  rule) 264 

tTomatoes,  escalloped 58 

t        "           puree  of 274 

t        "           sauted 58 

t        "           stuffed 58 


INDEX.  589 

tTomatoes,    spiced    169 

t .       "  to  can  whole  145 

t        "  to  cook 56 

t        "  to  cook  plain 514 

tTongue  boiled — tomato  sauce 480 

t      "        to  cook 1 88 

tTurkey  and  oyster  hash 488 

t      "       broth,  to  make  264 

t      "       to  carve  218 

f  to  prepare  and  roast 201 

tTurkish  pilaf  493 

Turning  out  an   omelet 230 

tTurnips,  creamed  without  butter 516 

t      "          to  cook  56 

tTurbot,  fish  200 

tTutti  frutti  candy 476 

t     "        "      ice  cream 370 

Tuesday,  work  for 463 

tUncooked  candies 477 

t        "  chocolate  creams 477 

tUnscalded  corn  meal  bread 508 

Uses  and  abuses  of  meat 394 

"     of  cuts  of  beef 178 

"     of  food 409 

"      of  cuts  of  mutton 181 

"     of  cuts  of  pork 181 

"      of  cuts  of  veal 18 

Use  of  glucose  as  an  adulteration 412 

"     of  fish 395 

"      of  salt  .-.., 147 

*Utensils  and  materials  for  making  salads 281 

for  making  cake 421 

kitchen 19 

Values  of  food  392 

Value  of  meat  for  food 178 

Veal,  breast  of 180 

t     "      chops,  to  saute 213 

"      chump  end  of  loin  of 181 

"      fillet  of 181 

"      flank  of , 180 

t     "      in  mushroom  sauce 49° 


590  INDEX. 

Veal  loin,  best  end  of 180 

"      names  of  cuts  of 180 

"      neck  of  181 

t    "      pot  pie 187 

t    "      pot  pie,  plain 511 

"      scrag  end  of  neck  of 180 

"      shank  of 180 

*     "      side  of 180 

t    "      to  carve  a  loin  of 218 

t     "      to  roast 199 

"      to  select 304 

"      uses  of  cuts 180 

t  Vegetable  oysters  or  salsify,  to  cook 59 

t        "           oysters,  to  cook  plain 515 

t        "           soup 268 

Vegetables  43 

place  of  in  the  diet  43 

rule  for  canning 142 

"           to  select 307 

used  for  flavoring  stocks 260 

Velvet  molasses  candy 470 

tVenison,  to  carve  a  saddle  of 218 

Vinegar,  cider 167 

t      "          for  watermelon  rind  pickles — to  prepare 168 

fruit 167 

t      "          home  made  156 

malt   167 

t      "          sauce    355 

t      "          whey 333 

white  wine 167 

Virgin  barm 88 

Viscous  fermentation 84 

tVitos,  to  cook 74 

tWaffles 113 

*Waffle  iron 114 

f  Walnut   creams    472 

Washing  dishes  and  utensils 30,  31 

Waste  of  food 391 

"       in  trimming  meats 195 

Water 36-42 

t     "      apple 330 

t     "      apricot 330 


INDEX.  591 

Water,    boiling   of 40 

"      composition  of 37,  38 

t      "       cranberry 331 

t      "      flaxseed   330 

t      "      flaxseed  (home  rule) 330 

food  value  of 38-40 

"      for  cooking  purposes 40 

t      "      ices 371 

"       of  wells 40-42 

t  or  fruit  juice  frosting 440 

"      permanent  hard 40 

purity  of 39 

river 41 

"      sources  of 36,  37 

"      sources  of  impurities  in 40 

spring 40 

t      "      sponge   cake    425 

t      "      tamarind 330 

temporary  hard 39 

t      "      toast 335 

Water  cress 44 

t     "  sandwich    137 

t     "         "      salad 293 

f Watermelon,  frozen  380 

t  rind  pickles 168 

t  rind  preserves  166 

to  prepare  for  table 377 

*Ways  in  which  melons  may  be  cut 378 

Wednesday,  work  for 463 

Weights  and  measures 27 

Weight  of  eggs 224 

Wells,  water  of 41,  42 

tWelsh  rarebit 241 

West  India  coffee  245 

What  to  serve  in  soups 260 

Wheat 76 

and  graham  muffins,  sour  milk 116 

and  graham  muffins,  sour  milk  (class  rule) 116 

"        and  wheat  flour 76 

"        as  food 79 

"        cereals,  food  value  of 82 

t     "        cracked,  to  cook 74 

"        dextrine  of  . .  80 


592  INDEX. 

Wheat,   fat   of 79 

flour,  adulterations  in 83 

V        germ  as  breakfast  food 82 

gluten  of 80 

grain,  physical  structure  of 77 

t     "         griddle  cakes 114 

"         mineral  matter  of  80 

t     "        muffins  with  baking  powder 117 

starch   of    80 

Whey   236 

t     "      junket    518 

t     "       lemon    , 333 

t     "      vinegar    333 

tWhite  beans  in  cream 61 

t      "      cake 428 

f  cake,   plain    504 

t      "       of  egg  icing 441 

t      "      meal  corn  gems  133 

t      "      sauce   No.    i 53 

t      "       sauce,  without  butter   512 

t      "      sauce,  without  butter,  for  cabbage 513 

wine  vinegar 167 

tWhole  wheat  bread  109 

t     "       wheat  or  graham  griddle  cakes 115 

t       "        wheat  muffins  raised  with  egg 118 

t      "       wheat  muffins,  sour  milk •„ 116 

t      "       wheat  or  graham  muffins,  baking  powder 116 

tWild  birds  334 

tWintergreen   creams   4?6 

Winter  lettuce  or  endive 44 

tomato  salad 288 

Wood 6 

tWoodcocks,  to  broil 193 

Work,  for  Friday  467 

"       for  Monday 462 

"       for  Saturday    468 

for  Thursday 466 

for  Tuesday  463 

"       for  Wednesday  463 

tW.  C.  T.  U.  punch 374 

Yeasts 84 

Yeast,  action  of  in  dough 95 


INDEX.  593 

Yeast,    brewers'    86,87 

"        compressed    88,  89 

dry    88 

t              dry,   to   make 501 

t     "        home  made  106 

t              made  with  hops 86 

t     "        potato 106 

strength  of 86 

t  Yellow  cake 504 

tYolk  cake  with  water  423 

t     "      custard    ., 345 

t            custard   (class  rule) 345 

t  Yorkshire  pudding  197 

Young  Americans — cheese 236 

Zinc  in  evaporated  apples 309 


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